Lightning in the atmosphere of Venus is either ubiquitous, rare, or non-existent, depending on how one interprets diverse observations. Quantifying when and where, or even if lightning occurs would provide novel information about Venus’s atmospheric dynamics and chemistry. Lightning is also a potential risk to future missions, which could float in the cloud layers (~50–70 km above the surface) for up to an Earth-year. Over decades, spacecraft and ground-based telescopes have searched for lightning at Venus using many instruments, including magnetometers, radios, and optical cameras. Two optical surveys (from the Akatsuki orbiter and the 61-inch telescope on Mt. Bigelow, Arizona) observed several flashes at 777 nm (the unresolved triplet emission lines of excited atomic oxygen) that have been attributed to lightning. This conclusion is based, in part, on the statistical unlikelihood of so many meteors producing such energetic flashes, based in turn on the presumption that a low fraction (< 1%) of a meteor’s optical energy is emitted at 777 nm. We use observations of terrestrial meteors and analogue experiments to show that a much higher conversion factor (~5–10%) should be expected. Therefore, we calculate that smaller, more numerous meteors could have caused the observed flashes. Lightning is likely too rare to pose a hazard to missions that pass through or dwell in the clouds of Venus. Likewise, small meteors burn up at altitudes of ~100 km, roughly twice as high above the surface as the clouds, and also would not pose a hazard.

Topographic flexure in response to vertical loads reveals key lithospheric properties, including elastic thickness and the heat flow from the interior. Flexural stresses may also control volcano morphology. One previous study predicted that steep-sided domes on Venus usually form where the elastic thickness is ~15-40 km. We surveyed flexural signatures around steep-sided domes and confirmed this hypothesis. We determined elastic thickness from topographic profiles with a curve-fitting algorithm and a plate bending model in Cartesian and axisymmetric geometry. We used a yield stress envelope to convert elastic thickness and plate curvature into mechanical thickness and surface heat flow. The average elastic thickness for domes not near coronae is ~30 km, corresponding to a heat flow of ~60 mW/m2. Coronae on Venus are typically associated with elastic thicknesses of <10-15 km. Domes near coronae yielded elastic thicknesses in this range, and higher heat flows than domes not near coronae.

Venus is the planet in the Solar System most similar to Earth in terms of size and (probably) bulk composition. Until the mid-20th century, scientists thought that Venus was a verdant world—inspiring science-fictional stories of heroes battling megafauna in sprawling jungles. At the start of the Space Age, people learned that Venus actually has a hellish surface, baked by the greenhouse effect under a thick, CO2-rich atmosphere. In popular culture, Venus was demoted from a jungly playground to (at best) a metaphor for the redemptive potential of extreme adversity. However, whether Venus was much different in the past than it is today remains unknown. In this review, we show how now-popular models for the evolution of Venus mirror how the scientific understanding of modern Venus has changed over time. Billions of years ago, Venus could have had a clement surface with water oceans. Venus perhaps then underwent at least one dramatic transition in atmospheric, surface, and interior conditions before present day. This review kicks off a topical collection about all aspects of Venus’s evolution and how understanding Venus can teach us about other planets, including exoplanets. Here we provide the general background and motivation required to delve into the other manuscripts in this collection. Finally, we discuss how our ignorance about the evolution of Venus motivated the prioritization of new spacecraft missions that will essentially rediscover Earth’s nearest planetary neighbor—beginning a new age of Venus exploration.