The D/H ratio in water on Mars, Rwater, is 4–6× the Earth ratio, signifying past water loss to space. Recently, measurements have revealed high values of the D/H ratio in hydrogen, Ratomic, in the thermosphere during southern summer. Here, we use a photochemical model to explore the potential drivers of Ratomic, testing three: thermospheric temperatures, excess mesospheric water, and changing insolation. We find that Ratomic can achieve values between 15× the Earth ratio (due to water) and 25× the Earth ratio (due to temperature). The effects arise because H escape is diffusion-limited, while D escape is energy-limited. Our results underscore how Ratomic reflects mesospheric dynamics, and the need for concurrent measurements of mesospheric water, thermospheric temperatures, and Ratomic to understand seasonal changes in the martian water cycle and atmospheric loss.

Although deuterium (D) on Mars has received substantial attention, the deuterated ionosphere remains relatively unstudied. This means that we also know very little about non-thermal D escape from Mars, since it is primarily driven by excess energy imparted to atoms produced in ion-neutral reactions. Most D escape from Mars is expected to be non-thermal, highlighting a gap in our understanding of water loss from Mars. In this work, we set out to fill this knowledge gap. To accomplish our goals, we use an upgraded 1D photochemical model that fully couples ions and neutrals and does not assume photochemical equilibrium. To our knowledge, such a model has not been applied to Mars previously. We model the atmosphere during solar minimum, mean, and maximum, and find that the deuterated ionosphere behaves similarly to the H-bearing ionosphere, but that non-thermal escape on the order of 8000-9000 cm-2s-1 dominates atomic D loss under all solar conditions. The total fractionation factor, f, is 0.04–0.07, and integrated water loss is 147–158 m GEL. This is still less than geomorphological estimates. Deuterated ions at Mars are likely difficult to measure with current techniques due to low densities and mass degeneracies with more abundant H ions. Future missions wishing to measure the deuterated ionosphere in situ will need to develop innovative techniques to do so.

Martian sub-solar electron temperatures obtained below 250 km are examined using data obtained by instruments on the Mars Atmosphere Evolution Mission (MAVEN) during the three sub-solar deep dip campaigns and a one-dimensional fluid model. This analysis was done because of the uncertainty in MAVEN low electron temperature observations at low altitudes and the fact that the Level 2 temperatures reported from the MAVEN Langmuir Probe and Waves (LPW) instrument are more than 400 Kelvin above the neutral temperatures at the lowest altitudes sampled (~120 km). These electron temperatures are well above those expected before MAVEN was launched. We find that an empirical normalization parameter, neutral pressure divided by local electron heating rate, organized the electron temperature data and identified a similar altitude (~160 km) and time scale (~2,000 s) for all three deep dips. We show that MAVEN data are not consistent with a plasma characterized by electrons in thermal equilibrium with the neutral population at 100 km. Because of the lack data below 120 km and the uncertainties of the data and the cross sections used in the one dimensional fluid model above 120 km, we cannot use MAVEN observations to prove that the electron temperature converges to the neutral temperature below 100 km. However, the lack of our understanding the electron temperature altitude profile below 120 km does not impact our understanding of the role of electron temperature in determining ion escape rates because ion escape is determined by electron temperatures above 180 km.

In situ measurements of ionospheric and thermospheric temperatures are experimentally challenging because orbiting spacecraft typically travel supersonically with respect to the cold gas and plasma. We present O2+ temperatures in Mars’ ionosphere derived from data measured by the SupraThermal And Thermal Ion Composition (STATIC) instrument onboard the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) spacecraft. We focus on data obtained during nine special orbit maneuvers known as Deep Dips, during which MAVEN lowered its periapsis altitude from the nominal 150 km to 120 km for one week in order to sample the ionospheric main peak and approach the homopause. We use two independent techniques to calculate ion temperatures from the measured energy and angular widths of the supersonic ram ion beam. After correcting for background and instrument response, we are able to measure ion temperatures as low as 100 K with associated uncertainties as low as 10%. It is theoretically expected that ion and electron temperatures will converge to the neutral temperature at altitudes below the exobase region (~180-200 km) due to strong collisional coupling; however, no evidence of the expected thermalization is observed. We have eliminated several possible explanations for the observed temperature difference between ions and neutrals, including Coulomb collisions with electrons, Joule heating, and heating caused by interactions with the spacecraft. Our current study leaves one plausible heating mechanism, the release of internal energy from O2+ that becomes vibrationally excited as a result of atmospheric chemistry, but future work is needed to assess its validity.

The MAVEN mission has measured an electron temperature spike at altitudes where the Martian atmosphere becomes optically thick and changes occur in the atmospheric chemistry. The temperature spike is consistent from orbit to orbit, but changes in location based on solar zenith angle (SZA) and has only been observed for SZA <80o. This letter presents the conditions under which it is observed and discusses possible sources. The electron temperature spike seems to be co-located with a temperature dip in the neutral atmosphere. The observed temperature spike/dip might be indicative of an inversion layer in the Martian atmosphere. The altitude location of the electron temperature spike is in the lower dynamo region where the electrons start to be unmagnetized. The observations are unlikely to be significant for overall Martian plasma dynamics, but are a clear indication that the large-scale Martian atmosphere is still not completely understood.