Co-located pressure and velocity observations in 10-15m depth are used to estimate the relative contribution of bound and free infragravity (IG) wave energy to the IG wave field. Shoreward and seaward going IG waves are analyzed separately. At the Southern California sites, shoreward propagating IG waves are dominated by free waves, with the bound wave energy fraction <30% for moderate energy incident sea-swell and <10% for low energy incident sea-swell. Only the 5% of records with energetic long swell show primarily bound waves. Consistent with bound IG wave theory, the energy scales as the square (frequency integrated) sea-swell energy, with a higher correlation with swell than sea energy. Seaward and shoreward free IG energy is strongly tidally modulated. The ratio of free seaward to shoreward propagating IG energy suggests between 50-100% of the energy radiated offshore is trapped on the shelf seaward of 10-15m and redirected shoreward. Remote sources of IG energy are small. The observed linear dependency of free seaward and shoreward IG energy on local sea-swell wave energy and tide are parameterized with good skill (R2 ~ 0.90). Free (random phase) and bound (phase-coupled) IG waves are included in numerically simulated timeseries for shoreward IG waves that are used to initialize (~ 10m depth) the numerical nonlinear wave transformation SWASH. On the low slope study beach, wave runup is only weakly influenced by free shoreward propagating waves observed at the offshore boundary (foreshore slope = 0.02).

Weekly to quarterly beach elevation surveys spanning 700-800 m alongshore and 8 years at two beaches were each supplemented with several months of ∼100 sub-weekly surveys. These beaches, which have different sediment types (sand vs. sand-cobble mix), both widen in summer in response to the seasonal wave climate, in agreement with a generic equilibrium model. Results suggest differences in backshore erodability contribute to differing beach responses in the stormiest (El Niño) year. At both sites, the time dependence of the equilibrium modeled shoreline resembles the first mode of an EOF decomposition of the observations. With sufficient training, an equilibrium-informed Extra Tree Regression model, that includes features motivated by equilibrium modelling, can significantly outperform a generic equilibrium model.

An empirically based sediment budget model is developed for Cardiff State Beach CA to assess management strategies to maintain beach width subject to mean sea level rise (MSLR) and potentially more frequent El Niño storms. Two decades (2000-2019) of surveys support the hypothesis that the rocky reefs bounding this beach retain sand added to the nearshore zone, except during strong El Niño years with more severe storm waves. The subaerial beach has widened by ~60 m during the last 20 years owing to nourishment (~17K m3/yr) of imported sand, and sand bypassed annually by dredging a lagoon inlet at the beach’s updrift end. The observed widening yields 1 m/yr of mean beach width increase for each 6 m3/m-shoreline of added sand. A strong El Niño year is modeled with a permanent volume loss coupled with a shoreline retreat that recovers partially as the beach profile adjusts between El Niño years. Calibrated with observations from Cardiff and South Torrey Pines (a control beach), the model is used to project beach change through 2050. All modeled scenarios suggest that no bypassing or nourishment (no “management”) will result in tens of meters of beach width loss. However, continued bypassing would partially mitigate MSLR and El Niño beach width losses. An artificially built (living shoreline) dune that backs the beach, if completely undermined during strong El Niño storm waves, stores enough sand to balance one-third of the expected volume loss that year, and may make the beach more resilient and speed subsequent beach recovery.