Alongside mean increases in poleward moisture transport (PMT) to the Arctic, most climate models also project a linear increase in the interannual variability (IAV) with future warming. It is still uncertain to what extent atmospheric rivers (ARs) contribute to both the mean and the IAV increase of PMT. We analyzed large-ensemble climate simulations to 1) explore the link between PMT and ARs in the present-day (PD) and in two warmer climates (+2°C and +3°C compared to pre-industrial global mean temperature), 2) assess the dynamic contribution to changes in future ARs, and 3) analyze the effect of ARs on Arctic climate on interannual timescales. We find that the share of AR-related PMT (ARPMT) to PMT increases from 42% in the PD to 53% in the +3°C climate. The increase in AR-frequency and intensity is almost exclusively caused by significantly higher atmospheric moisture levels, while dynamic changes can regionally amplify or dampen the moisture-induced increase in ARs. The amount of ARs reaching the Arctic in any given region and season strongly depends on the regional jet stream position and speed southwest of this region. Our results indicate that positive ARPMT anomalies are profoundly linked to increased surface air temperature and precipitation, especially in the colder seasons, and have a predominantly negative effect on sea ice. AR events are expected to strongly affect Arctic climate variability in the future, when any AR-induced temperature anomaly occurs in an already warmer Arctic and a larger share of precipitation falls as rain.

The availability of fresh water over land may become increasingly scarce under climate change, and natural and human-induced tree cover changes can further enhance or negate the water scarcity. Previous studies showed that global tree cover change can have large impacts on water availability under current climate conditions, but did not touch upon the implications of global tree cover change under climate change. Here, we study the hydrological impacts of large-scale tree cover change (climate-induced changes in combination with large-scale afforestation) in a future climate (SSP3-7.0) following an interdisciplinary approach. By combining data from five CMIP6 climate models with a future potential tree cover dataset, six Budyko models, and the UTrack moisture recycling dataset, we can disentangle the impacts of climate change and future tree cover change on evaporation, precipitation, and runoff. We quantify per grid cell and for five selected river basins (Yukon, Mississippi, Amazon, Danube, and Murray-Darling) if tree cover changes enhance or counteract the climate-driven changes in runoff due to their impact on evapotranspiration and moisture recycling. Globally averaged, the impacts of climate change and large-scale tree cover change on runoff are of similar magnitude with opposite signs. While climate change increases the global runoff, the changing tree cover reverses this effect which overall results in a limited net impact on runoff relative to the present climate and current tree cover. Nevertheless, locally the change in runoff due to tree cover change and climate change can be substantial with increases and decreases of more than 100 mm yr −1. We show that for approximately 16 % of the land surface, tree cover change can increase the water availability significantly. However, we also find that, for 14 % of the land surface, both tree cover change and climate change might decrease water availability with more than 5 mm yr −1. For each of the selected catchments, the direction and magnitude of the impacts of climate change and tree cover change vary, with dominating climate change impacts in all basins except the Mississippi River basin. Our results show that ecosystem restoration projects targeting an altered tree cover should consider the corresponding hydrological impacts to limit unwanted (non-)local reductions in water availability.