Abstract
Sinkholes are the most abundant surface features in karst areas
worldwide. Understanding sinkhole occurrences and characteristics is
critical for studying karst aquifers and mitigating sinkhole-related
hazards. Most sinkholes appear on the land surface as depressions or
cover-collapses and are commonly mapped from elevation data, such as
digital elevation models (DEMs). Existing methods for identifying
sinkholes from DEMs often require two steps: locating surface
depressions and separating sinkholes from nonsinkhole depressions. In
this study, we explored deep learning to directly identify sinkholes
from images of DEMs and DEM derivatives. We used an image segmentation
model, U-Net (a type of convolutional neural networks (CNNs)), to locate
sinkholes. We trained separate U-Net models based on four input images
of elevation data: a DEM image, a slope image, a DEM gradient image, and
a DEM shaded relief image. We also explored an aerial image as a model
input. Three normalization techniques (Global, Gaussian, and Instance)
were applied to improve the model performance. Model results suggest
that deep learning is a viable method to identify sinkholes directly
from images of elevation data. In particular, DEM gradient data provided
the best input for CNN-based image segmentation models to locate
sinkholes. The model using the DEM gradient image with Gaussian
normalization achieved the best performance with a sinkhole intersection
over union (IoU) of 45.38% on the unseen test set. Aerial images,
however, were not useful in training deep learning models for sinkholes
as the models using an aerial image as input achieved sinkhole IoUs
below 3 %.