Mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] is a drought-tolerant, short-duration crop, and a rich source of protein and other valuable minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants. The main objectives of this research were (1) to study the root traits related with the phenotypic and genetic diversity of 375 mung bean genotypes of the Iowa (IA) diversity panel and (2) to conduct genome-wide association studies of root-related traits using the Automated Root Image Analysis (ARIA) software. We collected over 9,000 digital images at three-time points (days 12, 15, and 18 after germination). A broad sense heritability for days 15 (0.22–0.73) and 18 (0.23–0.87) was higher than that for day 12 (0.24–0.51). We also reported root ideotype classification, i.e., PI425425 (India), PI425045 (Philippines), PI425551 (Korea), PI264686 (Philippines), and PI425085 (Sri Lanka) that emerged as the top five in the topsoil foraging category, while PI425594 (unknown origin), PI425599 (Thailand), PI425610 (Afghanistan), PI425485 (India), and AVMU0201 (Taiwan) were top five in the drought-tolerant and nutrient uptake “steep, cheap, and deep” ideotype. We identified promising genotypes that can help diversify the gene pool of mung bean breeding stocks and will be useful for further field testing. Using association studies, we identified markers showing significant associations with the lateral root angle (LRA) on chromosomes 2, 6, 7, and 11, length distribution (LED) on chromosome 8, and total root length-growth rate (TRL_GR), volume (VOL), and total dry weight (TDW) on chromosomes 3 and 5. We discussed genes that are potential candidates from these regions. We reported beta-galactosidase 3 associated with the LRA, which has previously been implicated in the adventitious root development via transcriptomic studies in mung bean. Results from this work on the phenotypic characterization, root-based ideotype categories, and significant molecular markers associated with important traits will be useful for the marker-assisted selection and mung bean improvement through breeding.

Deep learning (DL) methods have transformed the way we extract plant traits – both under laboratory as well as field conditions. Evidence suggests that “well-trained” DL models can significantly simplify and accelerate trait extraction as well as expand the suite of extractable traits. Training a DL model typically requires the availability of copious amounts of annotated data; however, creating large-scale annotated dataset requires non-trivial efforts, time, and resources. This has become a major bottleneck in deploying DL tools in practice. Self-supervised learning (SSL) methods give exciting solution to this problem, as these methods use unlabeled data to produce pretrained models for subsequent fine-tuning on labeled data, and have demonstrated superior transfer learning performance on down-stream classification tasks. We investigated the application of SSL methods for plant stress classification using few labels. Plant stress classification is a fundamentally challenging problem in that (1) disease classification may depend on abnormalities in a small number of pixels, (2) high data imbalance across different classes, and (3) there are fewer annotated and available plant stress images than in other domains. We compared four different types of SSL methods on two different plant stress datasets. We report that pre-training on unlabeled plant stress images significantly outperforms transfer learning methods using random initialization for plant stress classification. In summary, SSL based model initialization and data curation improves annotation efficiency for plant stress classification tasks.

Crop pest detection and mitigation remains an extremely challenging task for the farmers. Majority of the pest classification and detection techniques rely on supervised deep learning frameworks that require significant human intervention in labeling the input data, thereby making the down-stream tasks tedious. Therefore, this study presents a self-supervised learning (SSL) approach to classifying 12 types of agricultural insect pests from 9549 RGB images, by leveraging the Bootstrap your own latent (BYOL) algorithm. SSL uses minimal labeling and is indifferent to data augmentations or distortions. Hence, latent representations from pretrained SSL networks could be generalized well for downstream tasks like classification or object detection. For desirable classification of the insect images, the greatest challenges observed were: i) large intra-class variation (the same insect was found with different colors and patterns), and ii) complex background with inconspicuous foreground. Hence, to overcome these issues and aid generalizability of the representations learned through BYOL, entropy-guided segmentation (segments based on texture not color), is proposed as input to the SSL network in this study. Both raw and segmented images were separately fed to two independent BYOL SSL networks, i.e., with ResNet18 and ResNet50 architectures as the backbone. The efficacy of the latent representations for downstream applications was assessed using linear evaluation, and subsequently compared with traditional transfer learning outcomes from ResNet18 and ResNet50. The results indicated that, while ResNet50 backbone intuitively performed better in all cases, SSL aided with entropy-based segmentation led to ~94% classification accuracy compared to raw images (with ~90% maximum accuracy).