Evaporation decreases the mass and increases the isotope composition of falling drops. Combining and integrating the dependence of the evaporation on the drop diameter and on the drop-environment humidity difference, the square of drop diameter is found to decrease with the square of vertical distance below cloud base. Drops smaller than 0.5 mm evaporate completely before falling 700 m in typical subtropical marine boundary layer conditions. The effect on the isotope ratio of equilibration with the environment, evaporation, and kinetic molecular diffusion is modeled by molecular and eddy diffusive fluxes after Craig and Gordon (1965), with a size-dependent parameterization of diffusion that enriches small drops more strongly, and approaches the rough aerodynamic limit for large drops. Rain shortly approaches a steady state with the subcloud vapor by exchange with a length scale of 40 m. Kinetic molecular diffusion enriches drops up to as they evaporate by up to +5~\permil~for deuterated water (HDO) and +3.5~\permil~for H$_2$$^{18}$O. Rain evaporation enriches undiluted subcloud vapor by +12~\permil~per mm rain, explaining enrichment of vapor in evaporatively cooled downdrafts that contribute to cold pools. Microphysics enriches the vapor lost by the early and complete evaporation of smaller drops in the distribution. Vapor from hydrometeors is more enriched than it would be by Rayleigh distillation or by mixtures of liquid rain and vapor in equilibrium with rain.

In-situ measurements of the trade cumulus boundary layer turbulence structure are compared across large-scale circulation conditions and cloud horizontal organizations during the EUREC4A-ATOMIC campaign. The vertical structure of turbulent (e.g. vertical velocity variance, total kinetic energy) and flux (e.g. sensible, latent, and buoyancy) quantities are derived and investigated using the WP-3D aircraft stacked level legs (cloud modules).The 16 cloud modules aboard the P-3 were split into three groups according to cloud top height and column-integrated TKE and vertical velocity variance. These groups map onto qualitative cloud features related to object size and clustering over a scale of 100 km. This grouping also correlates to the large scale forcings of surface windspeed and low-level divergence on the scale of a few hundred km. The ratio cloud top to trade inversion base height is consistent across the groups at around 1.18. The altitude of maximum turbulence is 0.75-0.85 of cloud top height. The consistency of these ratios across the groups may point to the underlying coupling between convection, dissipation, and boundary layer thermodynamic structure. The following picture of turbulence and cloud organization is proposed: (1) light surface winds and turbulence which decreases from the sub-cloud mixed layer (ML) with height generates clouds with generally uniform spacing and smaller features, then (2) as the surface winds increase, convective aggregation occurs, and finally (3), if surface convergence occurs, convection and turbulence reach higher altitudes, producing higher clouds which may precipitate and create colds pools. Observations are compared to a CAM simulation is run over the study period, nudged by ERA5 winds and surface pressure. CAM produces higher column integrated turbulent kinetic energy and larger maximum values on the days where higher cloud tops are observed from the aircraft, which is likely a factor that influences the development of deeper clouds in the model. However, CAM places the peak turbulence 500 m lower than observed, suggesting there may be a bias in CAM representation of turbulence and moisture transport. CAM also does not capture the large LHFs seen for two of the days in which lower cloud tops are observed, which could result in insufficient lower free tropospheric moistening in the model during this type of cloud organization. A large and consistent bias between the model and observations for all cloud groups is the negative SHFs produced in CAM near 1500 m. This is not observed in the measurements. This leads to a net negative buoyancy flux not observed and provides evidence of a specific shortcoming that can be addressed as part of the needed improvement in the representation of clouds by large-scale models.

The science guiding the \EURECA campaign and its measurements are presented. \EURECA comprised roughly five weeks of measurements in the downstream winter trades of the North Atlantic — eastward and south-eastward of Barbados. Through its ability to characterize processes operating across a wide range of scales, \EURECA marked a turning point in our ability to observationally study factors influencing clouds in the trades, how they will respond to warming, and their link to other components of the earth system, such as upper-ocean processes or, or the life-cycle of particulate matter. This characterization was made possible by thousands (2500) of sondes distributed to measure circulations on meso (200 km) and larger (500 km) scales, roughly four hundred hours of flight time by four heavily instrumented research aircraft, four global-ocean class research vessels, an advanced ground-based cloud observatory, a flotilla of autonomous or tethered measurement devices operating in the upper ocean (nearly 10000 profiles), lower atmosphere (continuous profiling), and along the air-sea interface, a network of water stable isotopologue measurements, complemented by special programmes of satellite remote sensing and modeling with a new generation of weather/climate models. In addition to providing an outline of the novel measurements and their composition into a unified and coordinated campaign, the six distinct scientific facets that \EURECA explored — from Brazil Ring Current Eddies to turbulence induced clustering of cloud droplets and its influence on warm-rain formation — are presented along with an overview \EURECA’s outreach activities, environmental impact, and guidelines for scientific practice.

Absorption of sunlight forms a diurnal warm layer (DWL) in the afternoon at the surface and upper meters of the ocean when wind is weak. Analyses using models and remote sensing data disagree on the frequency of DWLs stronger than 1 °C. In situ time series in the central Indian Ocean showed the DWL exceeded 1 °C for 24% of days in October-December 2011 during the Dynamics of the Madden Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) experiment. For 4 days with mean wind of 1.4 m/s, the DWL was 1.5-2.5 °C. We observed atmospheric turbulence over the DWL using Doppler lidar. Mixed layer turbulence is convective, generated mostly by surface buoyancy flux. The turbulent kinetic energy dissipation of the convective marine atmospheric mixed layer scales with surface buoyancy flux like diurnal convective boundary layers over land and convective mixed layers in the ocean and lakes. This convection in the afternoon is out of phase with buoyancy flux from nocturnal atmospheric net radiative cooling. The afternoon atmospheric convective turbulence over the tropical ocean mixes heat and humidity from the ocean to the lifted condensation level of clouds.

Sunlight warms sea surface temperature (SST) under calm winds, increasing atmospheric surface buoyancy flux, turbulence, and mixed layer depth in the afternoon. The diurnal range of SST exceeded 1 °C for 24% of days in the central tropical Indian Ocean during the Dynamics of the Madden Julian Oscillation experiment in October-December 2011. Doppler lidar shows enhancement of the strength and height of convective turbulence in the atmospheric mixed layer over warm SST in the afternoon. The turbulent kinetic energy dissipation of the marine atmospheric mixed layer scales with surface buoyancy flux like previous measurements of convective mixed layers. The time of enhanced mixed layer dissipation is out of phase with the buoyancy flux generated by nocturnal net radiative cooling of the atmosphere. Diurnal atmospheric convective turbulence over the ocean mixes moisture from the ocean to the lifting condensation level and forms afternoon clouds.