Venus is the planet in the Solar System most similar to Earth in terms of size and (probably) bulk composition. Until the mid-20th century, scientists thought that Venus was a verdant world—inspiring science-fictional stories of heroes battling megafauna in sprawling jungles. At the start of the Space Age, people learned that Venus actually has a hellish surface, baked by the greenhouse effect under a thick, CO2-rich atmosphere. In popular culture, Venus was demoted from a jungly playground to (at best) a metaphor for the redemptive potential of extreme adversity. However, whether Venus was much different in the past than it is today remains unknown. In this review, we show how now-popular models for the evolution of Venus mirror how the scientific understanding of modern Venus has changed over time. Billions of years ago, Venus could have had a clement surface with water oceans. Venus perhaps then underwent at least one dramatic transition in atmospheric, surface, and interior conditions before present day. This review kicks off a topical collection about all aspects of Venus’s evolution and how understanding Venus can teach us about other planets, including exoplanets. Here we provide the general background and motivation required to delve into the other manuscripts in this collection. Finally, we discuss how our ignorance about the evolution of Venus motivated the prioritization of new spacecraft missions that will essentially rediscover Earth’s nearest planetary neighbor—beginning a new age of Venus exploration.

The rheological properties of Earth’s lower mantle are key for mantle dynamics and planetary evolution. The main rock-forming minerals in the lower mantle are bridgmanite (Br) and smaller amounts of ferropericlase (Fp). Previous work has suggested that the large differences in viscosity between these minerals greatly affect the bulk rock rheology. The resulting effective rheology becomes highly strain-dependent as weaker Fp minerals become elongated and eventually interconnected. This implies that strain localization may occur in Earth’s lower mantle. So far, there have been no studies on global-scale mantle convection in the presence of such strain-weakening (SW) rheology. Here, we present 2D numerical models of thermo-chemical convection in spherical annulus geometry including a new strain-dependent rheology formulation for lower mantle materials, combining rheological weakening and healing terms. We find that SW rheology has several direct and indirect effects on mantle convection. The most notable direct effect is the changing dynamics of weakened plume channels as well as the formation of larger thermochemical piles at the base of the mantle. The weakened plume conduits act as lubrication channels in the mantle and exhibit a lower thermal anomaly. SW rheology also reduces the overall viscosity, notable in terms of increasing convective vigor and core-mantle boundary (CMB) heat flux. Finally, we put our results into context with existing hypotheses on the style of mantle convection and mixing. Most importantly, we suggest that the new kind of plume dynamics may explain the discrepancy between expected and observed thermal anomalies of deep-seated mantle plumes on Earth.