Regardless of the steady increase of computing power during the last decades, 3D numerical models continue to be used in specific setups to investigate the thermochemical convection of planetary interiors, while the use of 2D geometries is still favored in most exploratory studies involving a broad range of parameters. The 2D cylindrical and the more recent 2D spherical annulus geometries are predominantly used in this context, but the extent to how well they reproduce the 3D spherical shell in comparison to each other, and in which setup, has not yet been extensively studied. Here we performed a thorough and systematic study in order to assess which 2D geometry reproduces best the 3D one. In a first set of models, we investigated the effects of the geometry on thermal convection in steady-state setups while varying a broad range of parameters. Additional thermal evolution models of three terrestrial bodies, respectively Mercury, the Moon, and Mars, which have different interior structures, were used to compare the 2D and 3D geometries. Our study shows that the spherical annulus geometry improves results compared to cylindrical geometry when reproducing 3D models. Our results can be used to determine for which setup acceptable differences are expected when using a 2D instead of a 3D geometry.

The relatively unconstrained internal structure of Venus is a missing piece in our understanding of the Solar System formation and evolution. To determine the seismic structure of Venus’ interior, the detection of seismic waves generated by venusquakes is crucial, as recently shown by the new seismic and geodetic constraints on Mars’ interior obtained by the InSight mission. In the next decades multiple missions will fly to Venus to explore its tectonic and volcanic activity, but they will not be able to conclusively report on seismicity or detect actual seismic waves. Looking towards the next fleet of Venus missions in the future, various concepts to measure seismic waves have already been explored in the past decades. These detection methods include typical geophysical ground sensors already deployed on Earth, the Moon, and Mars; pressure sensors on balloons; and airglow imagers on orbiters to detect ground motion, the infrasound signals generated by seismic waves, and the corresponding airglow variations in the upper atmosphere. Here, we provide a first comparison between the detection capabilities of these different measurement techniques and recent estimates of Venus’ seismic activity. In addition, we discuss the performance requirements and measurement durations required to detect seismic waves with the various detection methods. As such, our study clearly presents the advantages and limitations of the different seismic wave detection techniques and can be used to drive the design of future mission concepts aiming to study the seismicity of Venus.

Regardless of the steady increase of computing power during the last decades, 3D numerical models continue to be used in specific setups to investigate the thermochemical convection of planetary interiors, while the use of 2D geometries is still favored in most exploratory studies involving a broad range of parameters. The 2D cylindrical and the more recent 2D spherical annulus geometries are predominantly used in this context, but the extent to how well they reproduce the 3D spherical shell in comparison to each other, and in which setup, has not yet been extensively studied. Here we performed a thorough and systematic study in order to assess which 2D geometry reproduces best the 3D one. In a first set of models, we investigated the effects of the geometry on thermal convection in steady-state setups while varying a broad range of parameters. Additional thermal evolution models of three terrestrial bodies, respectively Mercury, the Moon, and Mars, which have different interior structures, were used to compare the 2D and 3D geometries. Our study shows that the spherical annulus geometry improves results compared to cylindrical geometry when reproducing 3D models. Our results can be used to determine for which setup acceptable differences are expected when using a 2D instead of a 3D geometry.

We report observations of Rayleigh waves that orbit around Mars up to three times following the S1222a marsquake. Averaging these signals, we find the largest amplitude signals at 30 s and 85 s central period, propagating with distinctly different group velocities of 2.9 km/s and 3.8 km/s, respectively. The group velocities constraining the average crustal thickness beneath the great circle path rule out the majority of previous crustal models of Mars that have a >200 kg/m3 density contrast across the dichotomy. We find that the thickness of the martian crust is 42-56 km on average, and thus thicker than the crusts of the Earth and Moon. Together with thermal evolution models, a thick martian crust suggests that the crust must contain 50-70% of the total heat production to explain present-day local melt zones in the interior of Mars.

The anelastic reaction of planet-forming materials is successfully described by the Andrade rheological model, which presents an extension of the simple Maxwell rheology. In addition to the instantaneous elastic deformation and the long-term viscous creep, the Andrade rheology incorporates the transient creep in metals, ices, and silicates, and is able to explain the tidal parameters of planets even in cases, where the Maxwell model requires the assumption of unrealistically low mantle viscosities. In this work, we discuss the applications of the Andrade model in planetary science, the parameters used in the literature, and their justification by material science and geodesy. We also examine the topic of relating the empirical tidal parameters to the mantle viscosity of moons and terrestrial planets and assess the limitations resulting from the uncertainties in the rheological parameters. Our study illustrates the necessity for future measurements that would help to better calibrate the rheological models to conditions relevant to the deep interiors of planets and moons.

The composition of basaltic melts in equilibrium with the mantle can be determined for several Martian meteorites and in-situ rover analyses. We use the melting model MAGMARS to reproduce these primary melts and estimate the bulk composition and temperature of the mantle regions from which they originated. We find that most mantle sources are depleted in CaO and Al2O3 relative to models of the bulk silicate Mars and likely represent melting residues or magma ocean cumulates. The concentrations of Na2O, K2O, P2O5, and TiO2 are variable and often less depleted, pointing to the re-fertilization of the sources by fluids and low-degree melts, or the incorporation of residual trapped melts during the crystallization of the magma ocean. The mantle potential temperatures of the sources are 1400-1500 ºC, regardless of the time at which they melted and within the range of the most recent predictions from thermochemical evolution models.

Temperature is of primary importance for many physical properties in the Martian soil. We measured diurnal and annual soil (and surface) temperature variations using the NASA InSight Mars mission’s HP3 radiometer and thermal probe. At the depth of the probe of 0.5 - 36 cm, an average temperature of 217.5K was found varying by 5.3 - 6.7 K during a sol and by 13.2K during the seasons. The damping of the surface temperature variations in the soil were used to derive a thermal diffusivity of 2.30±0.03×10−8 m2/s for the depth range of the diurnal wave - thermal skin depth 2.5±0.04 cm - and 3.74±0.61×10−8 m2/s for that of the annual wave, with a thermal skin depth of 84±10 cm. The temperatures measured are conducive to the deliquesence of thin films of brines in the soil. These are of astrobiological interest and may explain the formation of the observed cemented duricrust.

The presence of a global ocean, the water-rock interface at the base of the ocean, and the inferred ocean composition derived from sampling the active plume at the south pole of Enceladus, make Saturn’s moon a promising location for habitable conditions in the Solar System. Due to its thin (<35 km) and cold ice shell, Enceladus is expected to exhibit favourable conditions for direct detection of the ice-ocean interface using low-frequency radar sounder instruments. Here we investigate the two-way radar attenuation in the Enceladus ice shell, focusing on the effect of a porous icy layer generated by Enceladus’ jet activity. Our results show that as little as 2% of the ice shell can be penetrated in regions covered by thick and strongly insulating porous layers. However, the high subsurface temperatures in these regions could promote the formation of brines at shallow depth that can be detected by future radar measurements.

In this chapter we examine how our knowledge of present day Venus can inform terrestrial exoplanetary science and how exoplanetary science can inform our study of Venus. In a superficial way the contrasts in knowledge appear stark. We have been looking at Venus for millennia and studying it via telescopic observations for centuries. Spacecraft observations began with Mariner 2 in 1962 when we confirmed that Venus was a hothouse planet, rather than the tropical paradise science fiction pictured. As long as our level of exploration and understanding of Venus remains far below that of Mars, major questions will endure. On the other hand, exoplanetary science has grown leaps and bounds since the discovery of Pegasus 51b in 1995, not too long after the golden years of Venus spacecraft missions came to an end with the Magellan Mission in 1994. Multi-million to billion dollar/euro exoplanet focused spacecraft missions such as JWST, ARIEL and their successors will be flown in the coming decades. At the same time, excitement about Venus exploration is blooming again with a number of confirmed and proposed missions in the coming decades from India, Russia, Japan, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In this chapter, we review what is known and what we may discover tomorrow in complementary studies of Venus and its exoplanetary cousins.

The seismic activity of a planet can be described by the corner magnitude, events larger than which are extremely unlikely, and the seismic moment rate, the long-term average of annual seismic moment release. Marsquake S1222a proves large enough to be representative of the global activity of Mars and places observational constraints on the moment rate. The magnitude-frequency distribution of relevant Marsquakes indicates a b-value of 1.17, but with its uncertainty and a volcanic region bias, b=1 is still possible. The moment rate is likely between 1.5e15 Nm/a and 1.6e18 Nm/a, with a marginal distribution peaking at 4.9e16 Nm/a. Comparing this with pre-InSight estimations shows that these tended to overestimate the moment rate, and that 30 % or more of the tectonic deformation may occur silently, whereas the seismicity is probably restricted to localized centers rather than spread over the entire planet.

Basaltic melts are produced when convection adiabatically brings deep and hot mantle to lower pressures. Such primary melts were extracted from the mantle of Mars, crystallized near the surface and progressively built the Martian crust. This process displaced a large fraction of the heat producing elements from the mantle to the crust and created an insulating layer that slowed down further cooling of the mantle. The complex crust-mantle system controlled many aspects of the geologic history of Mars, including the development of an atmosphere and whether conditions favorable to life could have existed. Our knowledge of the mineralogy, chemical composition and physical properties of the crust of Mars is rapidly expanding. Global geodynamical models can be used to interpret the available data and constrain the processes of crust-mantle differentiation. However, existing models still treat melting in a simplified way. For example, the degree of melting is often assumed to increase linearly above the solidus temperature, while the density of the residue is assumed to decrease linearly. Calculating the density of the residual mantle more accurately is critical because the compositional buoyancy that develops during partial melting fundamentally modifies mantle dynamics. Here, we present an improved parametrization of partial melting of the Martian mantle, which will be combined with the convection code Gaia. We created a new empirical model of melting that calculates the composition of the extracted melts and, when combined to thermodynamic models (e.g., Perple_X), the density of the corresponding residual mantle. Another advantage of the new melting parametrization is that the major-element composition of partial melts can be tracked and used to constrain the petrogenesis of surface rocks. Preliminary results will be compared to available Martian rocks believed to represent primary mantle melts or melts affected by minor fractional crystallization.

The efficiency of heat transfer in the outer shell of icy satellites is important to determine the evolution and thermal state of their interior with major implications for the cooling behavior of an internal ocean. In this study, we systematically investigate thermal convection in the ice shell of Europa using an Arrhenius viscosity and accounting for ice I material that is dependent on both grain size and strain rate. To this end, we employ the geodynamical code GAIA [1] with a mixed rheology approach similar to [2], and perform calculations in a 2D Cartesian box and spherical annulus geometry for two values of the ice shell thickness (i.e., 30 and 70 km). In our simulations, we test various constant grain size values. In a first serie of simulations, we tested the importance of the dislocation creep mechanism for modeling convection in Europa’s ice shell. Our results show that, in a mixed diffusion-dislocation creep rheology, diffusion creep is the dominant heat transfer mechanism, similar to the study of [3]. A pure dislocation creep rheology leads to a conductive ice shell. Dislocation creep may become dominant if its rheological prefactor increases by about 5 orders of magnitude, which even taking into account the uncertainty associated with rheological measurements is considered unrealistic. Additional simulations that use a mixed diffusion-basal slip rheology show that for ice shells, basal slip may be a relevant deformation mechanism in addition to diffusion creep. Another important aspect is that the efficiency of heat transfer is larger for a thick ice shell (70 km, compared to a thinner one (i.e., 30 km)). However, the dimensional surface heat flow obtained for a thin ice shell is larger than for a thicker one. This is caused by the rescaling of non-dimensional parameters to a dimensional heat flow. References: [1] Hüttig et al., PEPI 2013; [2] Schulz et al., GJI 2019; [3] Harel et al., Icarus 2020.