Trace element emissions vary with lava flow age and thermal evolution
during the Fagradalsfjall 2021-2023 eruptions, Iceland.
Abstract
Basaltic fissure eruptions emit an array of volatile and environmentally
reactive gases and particulate matter (PM) into the lower troposphere
(e.g., SO2, HCl, and HF in the gas phase; Se, As, Pb as complexes in the
PM phase). Lava flows from fissure eruptions can be spatially extensive,
but the composition and fluxes of their emissions are poorly
characterized compared to those from main vent(s). Using UAS-mounted
(drone) samplers and ground-based remote FTIR spectroscopy we
investigate the down-flow compositional evolution of emissions from
active lava flows during the Fagradalsfjall 2021-2023 eruptions. The
calculated fluxes of volatile trace metals from lava flows are
considerable relative to both main vent degassing and anthropogenic
fluxes in Iceland. We demonstrate a fractionation in major gas
emissions, with decreasing S/halogen ratio down-flow. This S-Cl
fractionation is reflected in the trace element degassing profile, where
the abundance of predominantly sulfur-complexing elements (e.g., Se, Te,
As, Pb) decreases more rapidly in down-flow emissions relative to
elements complexing as chlorides (e.g., Cu, Rb, Cs), oxides (e.g., La,
Ce) and hydroxides (e.g., Fe, Mg, Al). Using thermochemical modeling, we
explain this relationship through temperature and composition dependent
element speciation as the lava flow ages and cools. As a result, some
chloride-complexing elements (such as Cu) become relatively more
abundant in emissions further down-flow, compared to emissions from the
main vent or more proximal lava flows. This variability in down-flow
element fluxes suggests that the output of metals to the environment may
change depending on lava flow age and thermal evolution.