Fig. 4. Conceptual illustration of models for H. sapienspopulations dispersals between 135-121 ka BP over northern (blue) and southern (yellow) routes. Rainfall maps include simulations for 140-120 ka BP (Otto-Bliesner, 2006) and the present-day (Fick and Hijmans, 2017) and are tuned to the chronology of Y99. All three models assume that the Sinai Peninsula (northern-route) was also a likely entry point into Arabia (supported by the assessment of archaeological assemblages from NE Africa, the Levant and northern Arabia). MIS 5e archaeological sites include the Alathar footprints (Saudi Arabia; Stewart et al., 2020b), Jebel Faya (Oman; Armitage et al., 2011), Skhul (Israel; Millard, 2008) and possibly Aybut al Awal (Oman; Rose et al., 2011). Undated/other Middle Palaeolithic sites were collated from (Groucutt et al., 2015b). Palaeoclimate records showing evidence of increased regional rainfall during MIS 5e include Mukalla Cave (Yemen; this study), Hoti Cave (Oman; Burns et al., 2001; Fleitmann et al., 2003; 2011), Soreq Cave and Negev Desert caves (Israel; Bar-Matthews et al., 2003; Vaks et al., 2006; 2010) and Wadi-Sannur Cave (Egypt; El-Shenawy et al., 2018) stalagmites; Palaeolakes Mundafan, Khujaymah, Jubbah, Alathar, Khall Amaysham, B’r Hayzan and Ti’s al Ghada (Saudi Arabia; Petraglia et al., 2011; 2012; Rosenberg et al., 2011; 2013; Stewart et al., 2020b), Saiwan (Oman; Rosenberg et al., 2012), Lake Tana (Ethiopia; Lamb et al., 2018), and Mudawwara (Jordan; Petit-Maire et al., 2010); Marine records KL-15 and RC09-166 (Gulf of Aden; Fleitmann, 1997; Tierney et al., 2017), ODP 721/722 (Arabian Sea; deMenocal, 1995), KL-11 (Red Sea; Fleitmann, 1997; Siddall et al., 2003); ODP 967 (Mediterranean Sea; Larrasoana et al., 2003; Grant et al., 2017), and DSDDP (Dead Sea; Torfstein et al., 2015).