References
1. Q. Zhao, et al. , Global, regional, and national burden of
mortality associated with non-optimal ambient temperatures from 2000 to
2019: a three-stage modelling study. The Lancet Planetary Health5 , e415–e425 (2021).
2. J. S. Hoffman, V. Shandas, N. Pendleton, The effects of historical
housing policies on resident exposure to intra-urban heat: A study of
108 US urban areas. Climate 8 , 12 (2020).
3. S. A. Benz, J. A. Burney, Widespread race and class disparities in
surface urban heat extremes across the United States. Earth’s
Future 9 , e2021EF002016 (2021).
4. J. Madrigano, K. Ito, S. Johnson, P. L. Kinney, T. Matte, A case-only
study of vulnerability to heat wave–related mortality in New York City
(2000–2011). Environmental Health Perspectives 123 ,
672–678 (2015).
5. M. Manware, R. Dubrow, D. Carrión, Y. Ma, K. Chen, Residential and
race/ethnicity disparities in heat vulnerability in the United States.GeoHealth 6 , e2022GH000695 (2022).
6. A. G. Berberian, D. J. Gonzalez, L. J. Cushing, Racial disparities in
climate change-related health effects in the United States.Current Environmental Health Reports 9 , 451–464 (2022).
7. J. Moon, The effect of the heatwave on the morbidity and mortality of
diabetes patients; a meta-analysis for the era of the climate crisis.Environmental Research 195 , 110762 (2021).
8. R. V. Remigio, et al. , Association of Extreme heat events with
hospital admission or mortality among patients with end-stage renal
disease. JAMA Network Open 2 , e198904–e198904 (2019).
9. D. Carrión, et al. , A 1-km hourly air-temperature model for 13
northeastern US states using remotely sensed and ground-based
measurements. Environmental Research , 111477 (2021).
10. C. J. Gronlund, Racial and socioeconomic disparities in heat-related
health effects and their mechanisms: a review. Current
Epidemiology Reports 1 , 165–173 (2014).
11. D. Hernández, Y. Jiang, D. Carrión, D. Phillips, Y. Aratani, Housing
hardship and energy insecurity among native-born and immigrant
low-income families with children in the United States. Journal of
Children and Poverty 22 , 77–92 (2016).
12. M. Graff, D. M. Konisky, S. Carley, T. Memmott, Climate change and
energy insecurity: a growing need for policy intervention.Environmental Justice (2021).
13. A. A. Williams, J. D. Spengler, P. Catalano, J. G. Allen, J. G.
Cedeno-Laurent, Building vulnerability in a changing climate: indoor
temperature exposures and health outcomes in older adults living in
public housing during an extreme heat event in Cambridge, MA.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health16 (2019).
14. K. Lane, et al. , Extreme heat and COVID-19 in New York City:
an evaluation of a large air conditioner distribution program to address
compounded public health risks in summer 2020. Journal of Urban
Health , 1–13 (2023).
15. A. Buyantuyev, J. Wu, Urban heat islands and landscape
heterogeneity: linking spatiotemporal variations in surface temperatures
to land-cover and socioeconomic patterns. Landscape Ecology25 , 17–33 (2010).
16. L. H. Schinasi, et al. , Associations Between historical
redlining and present-day heat vulnerability housing and land cover
characteristics in Philadelphia, PA. Journal of Urban Health99 , 134–145 (2022).
17. A. Nardone, K. E. Rudolph, R. Morello-Frosch, J. A. Casey, Redlines
and greenspace: the relationship between historical redlining and 2010
greenspace across the United States. Environmental Health
Perspectives 129 , 017006 (2021).
18. D. Hernández, Energy insecurity and health: America’s hidden
hardship. Health Affairs (2023)
https:/doi.org/10.1377/hpb20230518.472953 (July 27, 2023).
19. D. Hernández, Understanding ‘energy insecurity’ and why it matters
to health. Social Science & Medicine 167 , 1–10 (2016).
20. D. J. Bednar, T. G. Reames, Recognition of and response to energy
poverty in the United States. Nature Energy 5 , 432–439
(2020).
21. L. Perl, “The LIHEAP Formula” (Congressional Research Service,
2019) (July 11, 2023).
22. D. S. Massey, N. A. Denton, The dimensions of residential
segregation. Social Forces 67 , 281–315 (1988).
23. K. Walker, tidycensus: Load US Census boundary and attribute data as
“tidyverse” and ’sf’-ready data frames (2020).
24. Bureau of the Census, Centers of Population Computation for the
United States 1950-2010 (2011) (December 3, 2023). Accessed from:
https://www2.census.gov/geo/pdfs/reference/cenpop2020/COP2020_documentation.pdf.
25. Center for International Earth Science Information Network, Columbia
University, Gridded Population of the World, Version 4 (GPWv4):
Population Density, Revision 11 (2018).
26. D. Baston, exactextractr: Fast extraction from raster datasets using
polygons. R package version 0.5. 0 (2020).
27. D. O’Sullivan, D. W. Wong, A surface‐based approach to measuring
spatial segregation. Geographical Analysis 39 , 147–168
(2007).
28. A. M. Planey, S. C. Grady, R. Fetaw, S. L. McLafferty, Spaces of
segregation and health: complex associations for Black immigrant and
US-born mothers in New York City. Journal of Urban Health99 , 469–481 (2022).
29. A. Baddeley, R. Turner, Spatstat: an R package for analyzing spatial
point patterns. Journal of Statistical Software 12 ,
1–42 (2005).
30. L. Bergé, “Efficient estimation of maximum likelihood models with
multiple fixed-effects: the R package FENmlm” (Department of Economics
at the University of Luxembourg, 2018).
31. S. S. Johfre, J. Freese, Reconsidering the reference category.Sociological Methodology 51 , 253–269 (2021).
32. R. Nieuwenhuis, M. te Grotenhuis, B. Pelzer, Weighted effect coding
for observational data with wec. The R Journal 9 , 477
(2017).
33. S. N. Wood, Generalized additive models: an introduction with
R (CRC press, 2017).
34. J. M. Feldman, P. D. Waterman, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Spatial
social polarisation: using the index of concentration at the extremes
jointly for income and race/ethnicity to analyse risk of hypertension.Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 69 , 1199
(2015).
35. N. Krieger, P. D. Waterman, A. Gryparis, B. A. Coull, Black carbon
exposure, socioeconomic and racial/ethnic spatial polarization, and the
Index of concentration at the extremes (ICE). Health & Place34 , 215–228 (2015).
36. W. Landau, The targets R package: a dynamic Make-like
function-oriented pipeline toolkit for reproducibility and
high-performance computing. Journal of Social Structure6 , 2959 (2021).
37. K. Ushey, Renv: Project Environments. R package version 0.10. 0
(2020).