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\begin{document}

\title{Variable depth to bedrock under mountain streams influences channel
temperature, dewatering, and concurrent stream water gains and losses}



\author[1]{Martin Briggs}%
\author[2]{Phillip Goodling}%
\author[3]{Zachary Johnson}%
\author[3]{Karli Rogers}%
\author[3]{Nathaniel Hitt}%
\author[3]{Jennifer Fair}%
\author[3]{Craig Snyder}%
\affil[1]{U.S. Geological Survey, ESPD, Hydrogeophysics Branch}%
\affil[2]{U.S. Geological Survey}%
\affil[3]{US Geological Survey}%


\vspace{-1em}



  
  \date{May 27, 2024}


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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Mountain headwater streams provide unique ecological habitats that are
influenced by underlying geologic structure, including bedrock depth, a
characteristic that is often ill-defined. We evaluated the importance of
low-permeability bedrock depth for summer stream temperature and channel
dewatering patterns using horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR)
seismic methods along 8 headwater streams in Shenandoah National Park
(Virginia USA). HVSR data collected from 2015-2020 were complimented by
spatially continuous surveys of stream channel dewatering during
baseflow conditions (128.5 total km of stream length), multiyear stream
temperature data from 64 locations, and repeated paired discharge
observations using the salt dilution method. Median bedrock depth ranged
1.5 to 3.4 m, with half of the 8 stream corridors showing and average
depth \textless{} 2 m. Measured bedrock depths were not well represented
by existing large-scale geologic datasets or readily predicted based on
topography. Two subwatersheds showed a general downstream deepening of
the bedrock contact but others showed shallow bedrock throughout or had
discrete, deeper bedrock zones (e.g. \textgreater{}20 m depth). The
stream with the deepest average underlying bedrock contact supported the
coldest summer temperatures, displayed a characteristic thermal
signature of deeper groundwater influence, and did not dry during
baseflow conditions. Patchy channel dewatering was observed at baseflow
throughout the study area, as exemplified by the image below that shows
a stream disconnected by a localized deposit of alluvium. Bedrock depth
variability along the channel was associated with dewatering observed
within some streams, though our results also indicate the importance of
the shallow groundwater reservoir in maintaining streamflow and
influencing paired streamflow gain and loss patterns. Our study
demonstrates the importance of shallow, low-permeability bedrock
contacts on stream-groundwater exchange, impacting channel habitat and
connectivity within headwater stream networks.%
\end{abstract}%



\sloppy


\textbf{Variable depth to bedrock under mountain streams influences
channel temperature, dewatering, and concurrent stream water gains and
losses}

Martin A. Briggs\textsuperscript{1*}; Phillip
Goodling\textsuperscript{2}; Zachary C. Johnson\textsuperscript{3};
Karli M. Rogers\textsuperscript{4}; Nathaniel P.
Hitt\textsuperscript{4}; Jennifer B. Fair\textsuperscript{4,5}; Craig D.
Snyder\textsuperscript{4}

Mountain headwater streams provide unique ecological habitats that are
influenced by underlying geologic structure, including bedrock depth, a
characteristic that is often ill-defined. We evaluated the importance of
low-permeability bedrock depth for summer stream temperature and channel
dewatering patterns using horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR)
seismic methods along 8 headwater streams in Shenandoah National Park
(Virginia USA). HVSR data collected from 2015-2020 were complimented by
spatially continuous surveys of stream channel dewatering during
baseflow conditions (128.5 total km of stream length), multiyear stream
temperature data from 64 locations, and repeated paired discharge
observations using the salt dilution method. Median bedrock depth ranged
1.5 to 3.4 m, with half of the 8 stream corridors showing and average
depth \textless{} 2 m. Measured bedrock depths were not well represented
by existing large-scale geologic datasets or readily predicted based on
topography. Two subwatersheds showed a general downstream deepening of
the bedrock contact but others showed shallow bedrock throughout or had
discrete, deeper bedrock zones (e.g. \textgreater{}20 m depth). The
stream with the deepest average underlying bedrock contact supported the
coldest summer temperatures, displayed a characteristic thermal
signature of deeper groundwater influence, and did not dry during
baseflow conditions. Patchy channel dewatering was observed at baseflow
throughout the study area, as exemplified by the image below that shows
a stream disconnected by a localized deposit of alluvium. Bedrock depth
variability along the channel was associated with dewatering observed
within some streams, though our results also indicate the importance of
the shallow groundwater reservoir in maintaining streamflow and
influencing paired streamflow gain and loss patterns. Our study
demonstrates the importance of shallow, low-permeability bedrock
contacts on stream-groundwater exchange, impacting channel habitat and
connectivity within headwater stream networks.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
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\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/essoar/essoar}

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\end{figure}

\selectlanguage{english}
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