Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) is the densest water mass in the world and drives the lower limb of the global thermohaline circulation. AABW is formed in only four regions around Antarctica and Cape Darnley, East Antarctica, is the most recently discovered formation region. Here, we compile 40 years of oceanographic data for this region to provide the climatological oceanographic conditions, and review the water mass properties and their role in AABW formation. We split the region into three sectors (East, Central and West) and identified the main water masses, current regimes and their influence on the formation of Cape Darnley Bottom Water (CDBW). In the eastern sector, Prydz Bay, the formation of Ice Shelf Water preconditions the water (cold and fresh) that flows into the central sector to ~68.5◦E, enhancing sea ice production in Cape Darnley Polynya. This produces a high salinity variant of DSW (up to 35.15 g/kg) DSW that we coin Burton Basin DSW. In contrast, the western sector of the Cape Darnley Polynya produces a low salinity variant (up to 34.85 g/kg) we coin Nielsen Basin DSW. The resultant combined CDBW is the warmest (upper temperature bound of 0.05◦C) AABW formed around Antarctica with an upper bound salinity of ~34.845 g/kg. Our findings will contribute to planning future observing systems at Cape Darnley, determining the role CDBW plays in our global oceanic and climate systems, and modelling past and future climate scenarios.

The location of the Subtropical Front (STF), the boundary between Subtropical and Subantarctic Water in the Southern Ocean is proposed to be controlled by the strength and location of the Southern Hemisphere westerly winds. We use a hydrodynamic hindcast model and recent observations to test if changes in the westerly winds can cause meridional shifts in the STF over interannual to decadal time scales by modulating local Ekman transport. We find that increased, or northward, shifted westerly winds lead to an enhanced northward Ekman transport over large parts of the Southern Ocean, resulting in a northward shift in the STF. Conversely for weaker or southward shifted westerly winds. Regions with strong eddy variability, such as western boundary current systems of the Agulhas and East Australian Current behave differently, as the Sverdrup balance causes an opposite shift. In these regions an increase in westerly winds lead to a southward shift in the STF. A southward shift of STF has been observed between 2004-2019. However, the shift is smaller than the latitudinal shifts in the location of the zero wind stress curl and maximum westerly winds (-0.4° latitude/decade). This discrepancy is due to positive Ekman trends resulting from the intensification of the westerly winds, which oppose the southward migration. Changes in the Ekman transport and the overall southward shift of the STF have also resulted in an observed positive trend in chlorophyll-a concentrations south of the STF, which could have ramifications for the biological pump and carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean.

During Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS-3; 57–29 ka) Antarctic ice cores reveal a glacial climate state punctuated by millennial-scale warming events and pulses of CO2. Changes in iron-fertilised export production and ocean circulation/upwelling, interpreted from South Atlantic sediment cores, suggest that the Southern Ocean is a conduit for the storage and release of CO2 from the deep ocean. However, it is unclear whether this occurs throughout the Southern Ocean as these processes have not previously been investigated in the southwest Pacific . Here we describe localised iron limitation linked to glaciation changes in New Zealand, which reduced export production during early MIS-3 (60–48 ka) and caused decreases/increases in export production during late MIS-3 (48–29 ka) millennial-scale warming/cooling. Consistent decreases in foraminifera-bound δ15N during all MIS-3 warming events may reflect changes in the supply of nitrate to the subantarctic Pacific, possibly from increased wind-driven upwelling in the Antarctic and northward eddy-driven transport and/or shifting SO fronts. Concomitant decreases in bottom water oxygen and increases in the 14C age of deep waters suggest that old, nutrient-rich waters influenced upper circumpolar deep water in the southwest Pacific during warming events. This signature may reflect an expansion of Pacific Deep Water into the Southern Ocean as Southern Ocean overturning strengthens. Iron-limitation of export production, the expansion of Pacific Deep water, and increased wind-driven upwelling would all work to contribute to increasing atmospheric CO2 through reduced drawdown, and increased outgassing from the Pacific carbon reservoir during the millennial-scale warming events of MIS-3.

The meridional variability of the Subtropical Front (STF) and the drivers of variability on interannual time scales in the New Zealand region are analysed using a multi-decadal eddy-resolving ocean hindcast model, in comparison with Argo data. The STF marks the water mass boundary between subtropical waters and subantarctic waters, and is defined as the southern-most location of the 11 degree C isotherm and 34.8 isohaline between 100 m and 500 m. The STF shifts up to 650 km (6 degree) meridionally on seasonal timescales. In addition to seasonal variability, shifts of around 200 km (2 degree) occur on interannual time scales. These shifts are connected to local wind stress curl anomalies in the eastern Tasman Sea, which trigger Ekman convergence/divergence and result in meridional transport of heat and salt into/out of the Tasman Sea. The net transports across the northern boundary of the Tasman Sea show the largest sensitivity to these wind stress curl anomalies. During periods of positive wind stress curl anomalies and Ekman convergence, the heat and salt content increases shifting the position of the STF southward. The opposite tendency occurs during periods of negative wind stress curl anomalies. The migration of the STF does not appear to be directly linked to regional climate oscillations.