Chloride salt-bearing deposits are widely distributed across the southern highlands of Mars. Because chloride salts are highly water-soluble, these deposits may be representative of the last significant period of stable liquid water at the Martian surface. Therefore, these deposits are key to understanding the fate and evolution of surface waters on Mars. Yet, little consensus exists about the formation conditions of these deposits, and their origins remain enigmatic. This is due in part because remote spectroscopic detection and quantification of many chlorides is hampered by a lack of easily discernible diagnostic absorption features. To address this issue, we present a novel Hapke radiative transfer model (RTM)-based method to estimate hydration states and salt abundances of Martian chloride salt-bearing deposits using visible/near-infrared (VNIR) reflectance spectra. VNIR laboratory spectra are used to derive water abundances of analog chloride-bearing materials, establishing an experimental basis for application of these methods to Mars. These methods are then applied to orbital Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) data to create maps of hydration state and modeled salt abundance of chloride-bearing deposits. When overlain onto high resolution 3D digital terrain models (DTMs), these methods produce the highest resolution, site-specific salt abundance maps currently available, enabling new discoveries and understanding of geologic context. As an example, deposits in the Terra Sirenum region are observed to have higher estimated salt abundances than previously recognized, exhibiting spatial variations in both abundance and surface morphology.

Despite nearly complete coverage of the Martian surface with thermal infrared datasets, uncertainty remains over a wide range of observed thermal trends. Combinations of grain sizes, packing geometry, cementation, volatile abundances, subsurface heterogeneity, and sub-pixel horizontal mixing lead to multiple scenarios that would produce a given thermal response at the surface. Sedimentary environments on Earth provide a useful natural laboratory for studying how the interplay of these traits control diurnal temperature curves and identifying the depositional contexts those traits appear in, which can be difficult to model or simulate indoors. However, thermophysical studies at Mars-analog sites are challenged by distinct controls present on Earth, such as soil moisture and atmospheric density. In this work, as part of a broader thermophysical analog study, we developed a model for determining thermal properties of in-place sediments on Earth from thermal imagery that considers those additional controls. The model uses Monte Carlo simulations to fit calibrated surface temperatures and identify the most probable dry thermal conductivity as well as any potential subsurface layering. The program iterates through a one-dimensional surface energy balance on the upper boundary of a soil column and calculates subsurface heat transfer with temperature-dependent parameters. The greatest sources of uncertainty stem from the complexity of how thermal conductivity scales with water abundance and from surface-atmosphere heat exchange, or sensible heat. Using data from a 72-hr campaign at a basaltic eolian site in the San Francisco Volcanic Field, we tested multiple models for how dry soil components and water contribute to thermal conductivity and multiple approaches to estimating sensible heat from field measurements. Field measurements include: upwelling and downwelling radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and soil moisture, all collected from a ground station, as well as UAV-derived surface geometries. By mitigating Earth-specific uncertainty and isolating the controls that are most relevant to Martian sediments, we can then validate those controls with in situ thermophysical probe measurements and ultimately improve interpretations of thermal data for the Martian surface.

Before dawn on the dustiest regions of Mars, surfaces measured at or below ∼ 148 K are common. Thermodynamics principles indicate that these terrains must be associated with the presence of CO2 frost, yet visible wavelength imagery does not display any ice signature. We interpret this systematic absence as an indication of CO2 crystal growth within the surficial regolith, not on top of it, forming hard-to-distinguish intimate mixtures of frost and dust, i.e., dirty frost. This particular ice/regolith relationship unique to the low thermal inertia regions is enabled by the large difference in size between individual dust grains and the peak thermal emission wavelength of any material nearing 148 K (1-2 μm vs. 18 μm), allowing radiative loss (and therefore ice formation) to occur deep within the pores of the ground, below several layers of grains. After sunrise, sublimation-driven winds promoted by direct insolation and conduction create an upward drag within the surficial regolith that can be comparable in strength to gravity and friction forces combined. This drag displaces individual grains, possibly preventing their agglomeration, induration, and compaction, and can potentially initiate or sustain downslope mass movement such as slope streaks. If confirmed, this hypothesis introduces a new form of CO2-driven geomorphological activity occurring near the equator on Mars and explains how large units of mobile dust are currently maintained at the surface in an otherwise soil-encrusting world.

Surface heterogeneities below the spatial resolution of thermal infrared (TIR) instruments result in anisothermality and produce emissivity spectra with negative slopes at longer wavelengths. Sloped spectra arise from an incorrect assumption of either a uniform surface temperature or a maximum emissivity during the temperature-emissivity separation of radiance data. Surface roughness and lateral mixing of differing sub-pixel surface units result in spectral slopes that are distinct, with magnitudes proportional to the degree of temperature mixing. Routine Off-nadir Targeted Observations (ROTO) of the Thermal Emission Imaging Spectrometer (THEMIS) are used here for the first time to investigate anisothermality below the spatial resolution of THEMIS. The southern flank of Apollinaris Mons and regions within the Medusae Fossae Formation are studied using THEMIS ROTO data acquired just after local sunset. At higher emission angles, differing relative proportions of rocky and unconsolidated surface units are observed. This produces a range of sloped TIR emission spectra dependent on the magnitude of temperature differences within a THEMIS pixel. Spectral slopes and wavelength-dependent brightness temperature differences are forward-modeled for a series of two-component surfaces of varying thermal inertia values. This creates a thermophysical model suggesting a local rock abundance 6 times greater than currently published results and four orders of magnitude more sensitive than those relying on nadir data High-resolution visible images of these regions indicate a mixture of surface units from boulders to dunes, providing credence to the model.