The seismic activity of a planet can be described by the corner magnitude, events larger than which are extremely unlikely, and the seismic moment rate, the long-term average of annual seismic moment release. Marsquake S1222a proves large enough to be representative of the global activity of Mars and places observational constraints on the moment rate. The magnitude-frequency distribution of relevant Marsquakes indicates a b-value of 1.17, but with its uncertainty and a volcanic region bias, b=1 is still possible. The moment rate is likely between 1.5e15 Nm/a and 1.6e18 Nm/a, with a marginal distribution peaking at 4.9e16 Nm/a. Comparing this with pre-InSight estimations shows that these tended to overestimate the moment rate, and that 30 % or more of the tectonic deformation may occur silently, whereas the seismicity is probably restricted to localized centers rather than spread over the entire planet.

The instrument package SEIS (Seismic Experiment for Internal Structure) with the three very broadband and three short-period seismic sensors is installed on the surface on Mars as part of NASA’s InSight Discovery mission. When compared to terrestrial installations, SEIS is deployed in a very harsh wind and temperature environment that leads to inevitable degradation of the quality of the recorded data. One ubiquitous artifact in the raw data is an abundance of transient one-sided pulses often accompanied by high-frequency spikes. These pulses, which we term “glitches”, can be modeled as the response of the instrument to a step in acceleration, while the spikes can be modeled as the response to a simultaneous step in displacement. We attribute the glitches primarily to SEIS-internal stress relaxations caused by the large temperature variations to which the instrument is exposed during a Martian day. Only a small fraction of glitches correspond to a motion of the SEIS package as a whole caused by minuscule tilts of either the instrument or the ground. In this study, we focus on the analysis of the glitch+spike phenomenon and present how these signals can be automatically detected and removed from SEIS’ raw data. As glitches affect many standard seismological analysis methods such as receiver functions, spectral decomposition and source inversions, we anticipate that studies of the Martian seismicity as well as studies of Mars’ internal structure should benefit from deglitched seismic data.

InSight’s seismometer package SEIS was placed on the surface of Mars at about 1.2 m distance from the thermal properties instrument HP3 that includes a self-hammering probe. Recording the hammering noise with SEIS provided a unique opportunity to estimate the seismic wave velocities of the shallow regolith at the landing site. However, the value of studying the seismic signals of the hammering was only realised after critical hardware decisions were already taken. Furthermore, the design and nominal operation of both SEIS and HP3 are non-ideal for such high-resolution seismic measurements. Therefore, a series of adaptations had to be implemented to operate the self-hammering probe as a controlled seismic source and SEIS as a high-frequency seismic receiver including the design of a high-precision timing and an innovative high-frequency sampling workflow. By interpreting the first-arriving seismic waves as a P-wave and identifying first-arriving S-waves by polarisation analysis, we determined effective P- and S-wave velocities of vP = 119+45-21 m/s and vS = 63+11-7 m/s, respectively, from around 2,000 hammer stroke recordings. These velocities likely represent bulk estimates for the uppermost several 10’s of cm of regolith. An analysis of the P-wave incidence angles provided an independent vP/vS ratio estimate of 1.84+0.89-0.35 that compares well with the traveltime based estimate of 1.86+0.42-0.25. The low seismic velocities are consistent with those observed for low-density unconsolidated sands and are in agreement with estimates obtained by other methods.

The shallowest intracrustal layer (extending to 8 ± 2 km depth) beneath the Mars InSight Lander site exhibits low seismic wave velocity, which are likely related to a combination of high porosity and other lithological factors. The SsPp phase, an SV-to P-wave reflection on the receiver side, is naturally suited for constraining the seismic structure of this top crustal layer since its prominent signal makes it observable with a single station without the need for stacking. We have analyzed eight broadband and low-frequency seismic events recorded on Mars and made the first coherent detection of the SsPp phase on the red planet. The timing and amplitude of SsPp confirm the existence of the ~8 km interface in the crust and the large wave speed (or impedance) contrast across it. With our new constraints from the SsPp phase, we determined that the P-wave speed in the top crustal layer is between 2.5 km/s and 3.3 km/s, which is a more precise and robust estimate than the previous range of 2.0-3.5 km/s obtained by receiver function analysis. The porosity in Layer 1 is estimated to be as much as 21-31% (assuming an aspect ratio of 0.1 for the pore space), but could be lower if some pores are filled by low-density cements or other secondary 1 mineral phases. These porosities and P-wave speeds are compatible with our current understanding of the upper crustal stratigraphy beneath the InSight Lander site.

Recent estimates of the crustal thickness of Mars show a bimodal result of either ∼20 km or ∼40 km beneath the InSight lander. We propose an approach based on random matrix theory applied to receiver functions to further constrain the subsurface structure. Assuming a spiked covariance model for our data, we first use the phase transition properties of the singular value spectrum of random matrices to detect coherent arrivals in the waveforms. Examples from terrestrial data show how the method works in different scenarios. We identify three new converted arrivals in the InSight data, including the second multiply reflected phase from a deeper third interface. We then use this information to jointly invert receiver functions with the absolute S-wave velocity information in the polarization of body waves. Results show a crustal thickness of 43±5 km beneath the lander with two mid-crustal interfaces at depths of 8.5±1.5 km and 22±3 km.

In 2007, the National Academies designated “understanding the structure & composition of the lunar interior” (to provide fundamental information on the evolution of a differentiated planetary body) as the second highest lunar science priority that needed to be addressed. Here we present the current status of the planned response of the Lunar Geophysical Network (LGN) team to the upcoming New Frontiers-5 AO. The Moon represents an end-member in the differentiation of rocky planetary bodies. Its small size (and heat budget) means that the early stages of differentiation have been frozen in time. But despite the success of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP), significant unresolved questions remain regarding the nature of the lunar interior and tectonic activity. General models of the processes that formed the present-day lunar interior are currently being challenged. While reinterpretation of the Apollo seismic data has led to the identification of a lunar core, it has also produced a thinning of the nearside lunar crust from 60-65 km in 1974 to 30-38 km today. With regard to the deep mantle, Apollo seismic data have been used to infer the presence of garnet below ~500 km, but the same data have also been used to identify Mg-rich olivine. A long-lived global lunar geophysical network (seismometer, heat flow probe, magnetometer, laser retro-reflector) is essential to defining the nature of the lunar interior and exploring the early stages of terrestrial planet evolution, add tremendous value to the GRAIL and SELENE gravity data, and allow other nodes to be added over time (ie, deliver the International Lunar Network). Identification of lateral and vertical heterogeneities, if present within the Moon, will yield important information about the early presence of a global lunar magma ocean (LMO) as well as exploring LMO cumulate overturn. LGN would also provide new constraints on seismicity, including shallow moonquakes (the largest type identified by ALSEP with magnitudes between 5-6) that have been linked to young thrust fault scarps, suggesting current tectonic activity. Advancing our understanding of the Moon’s interior is critical for addressing these and many other important lunar and Solar System science and exploration questions, including protection of astronauts from the strong shallow moonquakes.

The InSight mission (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) has been collecting high-quality seismic data from Mars since February 2019, shortly after its landing. The Marsquake Service (MQS) is the team responsible for the prompt review of all seismic data recorded by the InSight’s seismometer (SEIS), marsquake event detection, and curating seismicity catalogues. Until sol 1011 (end of September 2021), MQS have identified 951 marsquakes that we interpret to occur at regional and teleseismic distances, and 1062 very short duration events that are most likely generated by local thermal stresses nearby the SEIS package. Here, we summarize the seismic data collected until sol 1011, version 9 of the InSight seismicity catalogue. We focus on the significant seismicity that occurred after sol 478, the end date of version 3, the last catalogue described in a dedicated paper. In this new period, almost a full Martian year of new data has been collected, allowing us to observe seasonal variations in seismicity that are largely driven by strong changes in atmospheric noise that couples into the seismic signal. Further, the largest, closest and most distant events have been identified, and the number of fully located events has increased from 3 to 7. In addition to the new seismicity, we document improvements in the catalogue that include the adoption of InSight-calibrated Martian models and magnitude scales, the inclusion of additional seismic body-wave phases, and first focal mechanism solutions for three of the regional marsquakes at distances ~30 degrees.

One of the goals of the InSight (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) mission is to constrain the interior structure of Mars. We present a hierarchical transdimensional Bayesian approach to extract phase velocity dispersion and interior shear-wave velocity (VS) models from a single seismogram. This method was adapted to Mars from a technique recently developed for Earth (Xu & Beghein, 2019). Monte Carlo Markov Chains (MCMC) seek an ensemble of one dimensional (1-D) VS models between a source and a receiver that can explain the observed waveform. The models obtained are used to calculate the phase velocities of fundamental and higher modes at selected periods, and a subsequent analysis is performed to assess which modes were reliably measured. An advantage of our approach is that it can also fit unknown data noise, which reduces the risk of overfitting the data. In addition, uncertainties in the source parameters can be propagated, yielding more accurate model parameter uncertainties. In this paper, we first present our technique and discuss the challenges stemming from using a single station to characterize both structure and the source and from the absence of a Mars reference model. We then demonstrate the method feasibility using the MSS blind test data and our own synthetic data, which included realistic noise levels based on the noise recorded by InSight.

In this paper, we present the results obtained in the determination of the true North direction on Mars by using a gnomon on the InSight mission and compare the measurements with either the North determination from the Inertial Measurement Unit and Imaging analysis. The obtained measurement has been use to populate the SEIS orientation information in the archived SEIS data. Images taken during December 2018 and January 2019 allows to determine the gnomon shadow position and length over a target. By calculating the Sun local coordinates using planetary ephemeris VSOP87, the images are used to estimate the true North direction on the landing site. By using eight different images, we obtain the true North direction with an accuracy up to $2.5^{\circ}$, which is confirmed by the IMU and Imaging analysis. The true North direction is also confirmed by an image taken near local noon, when the sun crosses the meridian. The North determination precision is then discussed in view of the seismic determination of the back-azimuth.

Seismic noise recorded at the surface of Mars has been monitored since February 2019, using the seismometers of the InSight lander. The noise on Mars is 500 times lower than on Earth at night and it increases during the day. We analyze its polarization as a function of time and frequency in the band 0.03-1Hz. We use the degree of polarization to extract signals with stable polarization whatever their amplitude. We detect polarized signals at all frequencies and all times. Glitches correspond to linear polarized signals which are more abundant during the night. For signals with elliptical polarization, the ellipse is in the horizontal plane with clockwise and anti-clockwise motion at low frequency (LF). At high frequency (HF), the ellipse is in the vertical plane and the major axis is tilted with respect to the vertical. Whereas polarization azimuths are different in the two frequency bands, they are both varying as a function of local time and season. They are also correlated with wind direction, particularly during the day. We investigate possible aseismic and seismic origin of the polarized signals. Lander or tether noise are discarded. Pressure fluctuation transported by environmmental wind may explain part of the HF polarization but not the tilt of the ellipse. This tilt can be obtained if the source is an acoustic emission in some particular case. Finally, in the evening when the wind is low, the measured polarized signals seems to correspond to a diffuse seismic wavefield that would be the Mars microseismic noise.

We present inversions for the structure of Mars using the first Martian seismic record collected by the InSight lander. We identified and used arrival times of direct, multiples, and depth phases of body waves, for seventeen marsquakes to constrain the quake locations and the one-dimensional average interior structure of Mars. We found the marsquake hypocenters to be shallower than 40 km depth, most of them being located in the Cerberus Fossae graben system, which could be a source of marsquakes. Our results show a significant velocity jump between the upper and the lower part of the crust, interpreted as the transition between intrusive and extrusive rocks. The lower crust makes up a significant fraction of the crust, with seismic velocities compatible with those of mafic to ultramafic rocks. Additional constraints on the crustal thickness from previous seismic analyses, combined with modeling relying on gravity and topography measurements, yield constraints on the present-day thermochemical state of Mars and on its long-term history. Our most constrained inversion results indicate a present-day surface heat flux of 22±1 mW/m2, a relatively hot mantle (potential temperature: 1740±90 K) and a thick lithosphere (540±120 km), associated with a lithospheric thermal gradient of 1.9±0.3 K/km. These results are compatible with recent seismic studies using a reduced data set and different inversions approaches, confirming that Mars’ mantle was initially relatively cold (1780±50 K) compared to its present-day state, and that its crust contains 10-12 times more heat-producing elements than the primitive mantle.

Seismic observations involve signals that can be easily masked by noise injection. For InSight, NASA's lander on Mars, the atmosphere is a significant noise contributor for two thirds of a Martian day, and while the noise is below that seen at even the quietest sites on Earth, the amplitude of seismic signals on Mars is also considerably lower requiring an understanding and quantification of environmental injection at unprecedented levels. Mars' ground and atmosphere provide a continuous coupled seismic system, and although atmospheric functions are of distinct origins, the superposition of these noise contributions is poorly understood, making separation a challenging task. We present a novel method for partitioning the observed signal into seismic and environmental contributions. Pressure and wind fluctuations are shown to exhibit temporal cross-frequency coupling across multiple bands, injecting noise that is neither random nor coherent. We investigate this through comodulation, quantifying the signal synchrony in seismic motion, wind and pressure. By working in the time-frequency domain, we discriminate the origins of underlying processes and provide the site's environmental sensitivity. Our method aims to create a virtual vault at InSight, shielding the seismometers with effective post-processing in lieu of a physical vault. This allows us to describe the environmental and seismic signals over a sequence of sols, to quantify the wind and pressure injection, and estimate the seismic content of possible Marsquakes with a signal-to-noise ratio that can be quantified in terms of environmental independence. Finally, we exploit the temporal energy correlations for source attribution of our observations.