We built an integrated nonlinear analysis software -INA- designed to study space plasma turbulence and intermittency. The MATLAB programming environment was used for the algorithmic development and implementation of methods for spectral analysis, multiscale fluctuations and multifractal analysis. The performance of INA is demonstrated using magnetic field measurements from the Cluster 3 spacecraft during an inbound pass through the Earth’s magnetosheath region. We show how specific features of the power spectral density (PSD) can be mapped to localised time-frequency regions in the spectrogram representation, and identify multiple intermittent events using the wavelet-based local intermittency measure (LIM). Multiscale probability density functions (PDFs) showed clear departures from Gaussianity, signifying the presence of intermittency. Structure functions (SFs) and rank-ordered multifractal analysis (ROMA) revealed the multifractal nature of the analysed signal. INA is freely distributed as a standalone executable file to any interested user, and provides an integrated, interactive, and user-friendly environment in which one can import a dataset, customize key analysis parameters, apply multiple methods on the same signal and then export high-quality, publication-ready figures. These are only a few of the many distinguishing features of INA.

In the text “Mass and Massiton”, I propose a hypothesis that there is one kind of the elementary particle that can produce gravitational force, and it is the minimum component that make up of mass, and I give it a name called “Massiton”. Both electrons and protons are composite particles, wherein the positive and negative charges are located at the center and the outer spherical shells wrapping the central electric charges are made up of Massitons. And the most convincing evidence for the existence of Massitons is the neutrinos that have mass, and have no charges.

We develop a doubly periodic version of the Simple Convection-Permitting E3SM Atmosphere Model (SCREAM) to provide an “efficient” configuration for this global storm resolving model (GSRM), akin to a single column model (SCM) often found in conventional general circulation models (GCMs). The design details are explained, in addition to the extensive case library associated with the doubly periodic SCREAM (DP-SCREAM) configuration. We demonstrate that doubly periodic cloud resolving models are useful tools to explore the scale awareness and scale sensitivity of GSRMs, in addition to replicating biases seen in the global models. Using DP-SCREAM, we show that SCREAM is a scale aware model as it is able to realistically partition between sub-grid scale (SGS) and resolved vertical transport across the gray zone of turbulence. We show that SCREAM is reasonably scale insensitive when run at resolutions from 1 to 5 km, but can exhibit sensitivity, particularly for the shallow convective regime, when run at resolutions approaching that of large eddy simulations. We conclude that SGS parameterization improvements are likely needed to reduce this scale sensitivity.

Solar Energetic Protons (SEPs) have been shown to contribute significantly to the inner zone trapped proton population for energies < 100 MeV and L > 1.3 (Selesnick et al., 2007). The Relativistic Electron Proton Telescope (REPT) on the Van Allen Probes launched 30 August 2012 observed a double-peaked (in L) inner zone population throughout the 7-year lifetime of the mission. It has been proposed that a strong SEP event accompanied by a CME-shock in early March 2012 provided the SEP source for the higher L trapped proton population, which then diffused radially inward to be observed by REPT at L ~ 2. Here, we follow trajectories of SEP protons launched isotropically from a sphere at 7 Re in 15s cadence fields from an LFM-RCM global MHD simulation driven by measured upstream solar wind parameters. The timescale of the interplanetary shock arrival is captured, launching a magnetosonic impulse propagating azimuthally along the dawn and dusk flanks inside the magnetosphere, shown previously to produce SEP trapping. The MHD-test particle simulation uses GOES proton energy spectra to weight the initial radial profile required for the radial diffusion calculation over the following two years. GOES proton measurements also provide a dynamic outer boundary condition for radial diffusion. A direct comparison with REPT measurements 20 months following the trapping event in March 2012 provides good agreement with this novel combination of short-term and long-term evolution of the newly trapped protons.

Studying bedrock rivers during their transient states helps understand the response of a fluvial system to changed boundary conditions. Although studies show how river form adjusts to changes in incision or rock uplift rates, field constraints on the timescale of this adjustment are limited. We present a method that uses knickpoint travel time to estimate the adjustment times of channel width and angle of valley-side slopes to accelerated incision. The travel time of knickpoints between their current positions and the points where changes in width or hillslope angle have just finished represents the time required for morphological adjustment after knickpoint passage. We documented channel slopes, channel widths, and hillslope angles along six rivers that cross an active normal fault in Iwaki, Japan, and identified river sections in a transient state. Channel slopes and basin-averaged erosion rates determined from 10Be concentrations are distinct between rivers near and distant from the fault, suggesting that past increases in fault throw rates triggered the knickpoint formation and the observed transient response. Adjustment time depends on the slope exponent in the detachment-limited model and is 2–5 times greater for channel width than hillslope angle, indicating that catchment adjustment times can be much longer than times predicted only by knickpoint travel time. The fact that channel slope, channel width, and hillslope angle have distinct adjustment times underlines the importance of correctly identifying river sections that are fully adjusted to the new boundary conditions when inferring erosion or relative uplift rates for bedrock rivers.

The first samples collected by the Perseverance rover on the Mars 2020 mission were from the Maaz formation, a lava plain that covers most of the floor of Jezero crater. Laboratory analysis of these samples back on Earth will provide important constraints on the petrologic history, aqueous processes, and timing of key events in Jezero. However, interpreting these samples will require a detailed understanding of the emplacement and modification history of the Maaz formation. Here we synthesize rover and orbital remote sensing data to link outcrop-scale interpretations to the broader history of the crater, including Mastcam-Z mosaics and multispectral images, SuperCam chemistry and reflectance point spectra, RIMFAX ground penetrating radar, and orbital hyperspectral reflectance and high-resolution images. We show that the Maaz formation is composed of a series of distinct members corresponding to basaltic to basaltic andesite lava flows. The members exhibit variable spectral signatures dominated by high-Ca pyroxene, Fe-bearing feldspar, and hematite, which can be tied directly to igneous grains and altered matrix in abrasion patches. Spectral variations correlate with morphological variations, from recessive layers that produce a regolith lag in lower Maaz, to weathered polygonally fractured paleosurfaces and crater-retaining massive blocky hummocks in upper Maaz. The Maaz members were likely separated by one or more extended periods of time, and were subjected to variable erosion, burial, exhumation, weathering, and tectonic modification. The two unique samples from the Maaz formation are representative of this diversity, and together will provide an important geochronological framework for the history of Jezero crater.

The Subpolar North Atlantic plays a critical role in the formation of the deep water masses which drive Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). Labrador Sea Water (LSW) is formed in the Labrador Sea and exported predominantly via the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC). The DWBC is an essential component of the AMOC advecting deep waters southward, flowing at depth along the continental slope of the western Atlantic. By combining sustained hydrographic observations from the Labrador Sea, Line W, Bermuda basin, and offshore of Abaco Island along 26.5°N, we investigate the signal propagation and advective timescales of LSW via the DWBC from its source region to the Tropical Atlantic through various approaches using robust neutral density classifications. Two individually-defined LSW classes are observed to advect on timescales that support a new plausible hydrographically-observed advective pathway. We find each LSW class to advect on independent timescales, and validate a hypothesized alternative-interior advection pathway branching from the DWBC by observing LSW outside of the DWBC in the Bermuda basin just prior to or on the same timescale as at 26.5°N- 10-15 years after leaving the source region. Advective timescales estimated herein indicate that this interior pathway is likely the main advective pathway; it remains uncertain whether a direct pathway plays a significant advective role. Using LSW convective signals as advective tracers along the DWBC permits the estimation of advective timescales from the subpolar to tropical latitudes, illuminating deep water advection pathways across the North Atlantic and the lower-limb of AMOC as a whole.

The Loop Current (LC) in the Gulf of Mexico is part of the eastern North Atlantic circulation. Recording its strength and slowdown variations can help us characterize the regional climate over the Late Pleistocene. To reconstruct the sea surface and the LC intensity in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, we used the distribution patterns of planktonic foraminifera found in the core EN-032-18PC. The core spans the end of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 9 to early MIS 4. We reconstructed a sequence of paleoceanographic events based on three faunal assemblages. The first assemblage explains most of the series, dominated by a subtropical and oligotrophic assemblage suggesting a reduced LC due to glacial conditions and a reduced inflow of warm Caribbean waters. The second assemblage explains the end of MIS 9, the onset of MIS 5, and MIS 7, dominated by tropical species during the warmest interglacial periods suggesting stratified waters and an extended LC. The third assemblage explains transitional climatic episodes with a planktonic species suggesting a more nutritive surface and thermocline waters and a moderate extension of the LC driven by minimum values in summer insolation. Overall, we found that surface ocean conditions were more stable during glacial than interglacial periods with less ecological successions. The long-term change of three species suggests the LC in a more retracted form and an overall transition to more variable oceanographic conditions. We suggest that fluctuations in the LC rely on the migration of atmospheric circulation patterns and the astronomical insolation forcings.

As tsunamis propagate across open oceans, they remain largely unseen due to the lack of adequate sensors, hence limiting the scope of existing tsunami warnings. A potential alternative method relies on the Global Navigation Satellites Systems to monitor the ionosphere for Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances created by tsunami-induced internal gravity waves (IGWs). The approach has been applied to tsunamis generated by earthquakes but rarely by undersea volcanic eruptions injecting energy into both the ocean and the atmosphere. The large 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcanic eruption tsunami is thus a challenge for tsunami ionospheric imprint detection. Here, we show that in near-field regions (<1500km), despite the complex wavefield, we can isolate the tsunami imprint. We also highlight that the eruption-generated Lamb wave’s ionospheric imprints show an arrival time and an amplitude spatial pattern consistent with internal gravity wave origin.

Tethyan evolution is characterized by cyclical continent-transfer from Gondwana to the continents in the Northern Hemisphere, similar to a “one-way” train. Subduction has been viewed as the primary driver of transference. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the tectonic evolution of all past subduction zones that occurred along Eurasia’s southern margin. We studied the earliest known eclogite located at the Neo-Tethyan suture in the Iranian segment. A prograde-E-MORB-like eclogite reached a peak metamorphic condition of 2.2 GPa and 560°C, at 190 ± 11 Ma (1 rutile U-Pb ages), which constrains the youngest age for subduction initiation of the Neo-Tethyan slab. Combined with regional magmatic and structural data, the oldest age for Neo-Tethys subduction initiation is 210–192 Ma, which is younger than the Paleo-Tethyan closure time of 228–209 Ma. These data, used with previous numerical modeling, supports collision-induced subduction initiation. The collision-induced force, together with the Paleo-Tethyan subduction driven-mantle flow, is likely to have exploited weak inherited structures from earlier Neo-Tethyan rifting, resulting in a northward directed subduction zone along the southern margin of Central Iran Block.

Models of the high-latitude ionospheric electric field are commonly used to specify the magnetospheric forcing in thermosphere or whole atmosphere models. The use of decades-old models based on spacecraft data is still widespread. Currently the Heelis and Weimer climatology models are most commonly used but it is possible a more recent electric field model could improve forecasting functionality. Modern electric field models, derived from radar data, have been developed to incorporate advances in data availability. It is expected that climatologies based on this larger and up-to-date dataset will better represent the high latitude ionosphere and improve forecasting abilities. An example of two such models, which have been developed using line-of-sight velocity measurements from the Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) are the Thomas and Shepherd model (TS18), and the Time-Variable Ionospheric Electric Field model (TiVIE). Here we compare the outputs of these electric field models during the September 2017 storm, covering a range of solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) conditions. We explore the relationships between the IMF conditions and the model output parameters such as transpolar voltage, the polar cap size and the lower latitude boundary of convection. We find that the electric potential and field parameters from the spacecraft-based models have a significantly higher magnitude than the SuperDARN-based models. We discuss the similarities and differences in topology and magnitude for each model.

In the text “Electricity and Magnetism”, I propose a hypothesis about the whole mechanism for electricity and magnetism and their interactions, including the discussions about followings: 1, the possible existence of magnetic charges in protons and electrons where the positive and negative electric charges locate exactly; 2, the mechanism of the activation and deactivation of magnetic charges with in protons and electrons; 3, how electricity, magnetism and Lorentz effect interact with each other within hydrogen atom; The whole mechanism can provide a framework for hydrogen atom and solve the atomic stability issue.

The recently selected NASA VERITAS and DAVINCI missions, the ESA EnVision, the Roscosmos Venera-D will open a new era in the exploration of Venus. One of the key targets of the future orbiting and in-situ investigations of Venus is the identification of volcanically active areas on the planet. The study of the areas characterized by recent or ongoing volcano-tectonic activity can inform us on how volcanism and tectonism are currently evolving on Venus. Following this key target, the manuscript by Brossier et al. (2022) (https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL099765) extends the successful approach and methodology used by previous works to Ganis Chasma in Atla Regio. We comment here on the main results of the manuscript published by Brossier et al. (2022) (https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL099765) and discuss the important implications of their work for the future orbiting and in-situ investigation of Venus. Their results add further lines of evidence indicating possibly recent volcanism on Venus.

How runoff will change as atmospheric CO2 rises depends upon several difficult to project factors, including CO2 fertilization, lengthened growing seasons, and vegetation greening. However, geologic records of the hydrological response to past carbon cycle perturbations indicate large increases in runoff with higher CO2. We demonstrate that the fact that the Earth has remained habitable since life emerged sets a lower-bound on the sensitivity of runoff to CO2 changes. The recovery of the Earth system from perturbations is attributed to silicate weathering, which transfers CO2 to the oceans as alkalinity via runoff. Though many factors mediate weathering rates, runoff determines the total flux of silicate-derived cations and hence the removal flux of excess CO2. Using a carbon cycle model that parameterizes weathering as a function of rock reactivity, runoff, temperature, and soil CO2, we show that recovery from a perturbation is only possible if the lower-bound for the sensitivity of runoff to atmospheric CO2 is 0%/K. Using proxy data for the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, we find that to match the marine d13C record requires a runoff sensitivity greater than 0%/K and similar to estimates of the modern runoff sensitivity derived from an ensemble of Earth system models. These results suggest that the processes that enhance global runoff are likely to prevail over processes that tend to dampen runoff. In turn, that the Earth has always recovered from perturbations suggests that, though the runoff response is spatially complex, global discharge has never declined in response to warming, despite quite varied paleogeographies.

Arctic-Boreal lakes emit methane (CH₄), a powerful greenhouse gas. Recent studies suggest ebullition may be a dominant methane emission pathway in lakes but its drivers are poorly understood. Various predictors of lake methane ebullition have been proposed, but are challenging to evaluate owing to different geographical characteristics, field locations, and sample densities. Here we compare large geospatial datasets of lake area, lake perimeter, permafrost, landcover, temperature, soil organic carbon content, depth, and greenness with remotely sensed methane ebullition estimates for 5,143 Alaskan lakes. We find that lake wetland fraction (LWF), a measure of lake wetland and littoral zone area, is a leading predictor of methane ebullition (adj. R² = 0.211), followed by lake surface area (adj. R² = 0.201). LWF is inversely correlated with lake area, thus higher wetland fraction in smaller lakes may explain a commonly cited inverse relationship between lake area and methane ebullition. Lake perimeter (adj. R² = 0.176) and temperature (adj. R² = 0.157) are moderate predictors of lake ebullition, and soil organic carbon content, permafrost, lake depth, and greenness are weak predictors. The low adjusted R² values are typical and informative for methane attribution studies. A multiple regression model combining LWF, area, and temperature performs best (adj. R² = 0.325). Our results suggest landscape-scale geospatial analyses can complement smaller field studies, for attributing Arctic-Boreal lake methane emissions to readily available environmental variables.

Evaluating the influence of grass or broadleaf cover crops on soil health measurements is common in the U.S Midwest. However, the comparison among different cover crop mixtures, including blends of both grass and broadleaf species is limited. Eleven cover crop experiments were conducted in South Dakota from 2018-2020. Cover crops were planted in the fall after small grains harvest as mixtures of dominantly grasses or broadleaves, a 50/50 grass/broadleaf mixture, and a no cover crop control. Soil and plant surface residue samples were collected in the fall before winter kill and in the spring before cover crop termination and corn planting. Soil samples were analyzed for permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC), potentially mineralizable nitrogen (PMN), and soil respiration. Cover crops regardless of composition compared to the no cover crop control did not affect fall or spring cover crop/previous crop residue biomass in 7 of the 11 site-years, suggesting growing cover crops may accelerate decomposition of previous crop residue. Cover crops did not improve soil health measurements compared to the no cover crop control or were there differences among cover crop mixtures. Weather and soil properties (precipitation, soil organic matter, and pH) were related to differences in soil heath measurements among site-years. In the first year of planting a multi-species mixture of grasses and/or broadleaves after small grain harvest, growers should not expect to find differences in soil health measurements. Long-term trials are needed to determine whether these different cover crop mixtures over time result in changes in soil health.

Taking stock of global progress towards achieving the Paris Agreement requires measuring aggregate national action against modelled mitigation pathways. Because of differences in how land-based carbon removals are defined, scientific sources report higher global carbon emissions than national emissions inventories, a gap which will evolve in the future. We establish a first estimate aligning IPCC-assessed pathways with inventories using a climate model to explicitly include indirect carbon removal dynamics on land area reported as managed for by countries. After alignment, we find that key global mitigation benchmarks can appear more ambitious when considering this extra land sink, though changes vary amongst world regions and temperature outcomes. Our results highlight the need to enhance communication between scientific and policy communities to enable more robust alignment in the future.

Previous studies have identified intense climatic change in the Southern Ocean. However, the response of ACC transport to climate change is not fully understood. In this study, by using in-situ ocean bottom pressure (OBP) records and five GRACE products, long-term variations of ACC transport are studied. Our results confirm the reliability of GRACE CSR mascon product in ACC transport estimation at the Drake Passage. Superimposed on interannual variability, ACC transport exhibits an obvious increasing trend (1.32±0.07Sv year-1) during the GRACE era. Based on results of a mass-conservation ocean model simulation, we suggest that the acceleration of ACC is associated with intensified westerly winds and loss of land ice in Antarctica.

Using the global and coupled ICON-Sapphire model with a grid spacing of \SI{5}{\kilo\meter}, we describe seasonal and diurnal features of the tropical rainbelt and assess the limits of ICON-Sapphire in representing tropical precipitation. Aside from the meridional migration, the tropical rainbelt exhibits a seasonal enlargement and a zonal migration. Surprisingly, ICON-Sapphire reproduces these characteristics with better performance over land than over ocean and with a very high degree of agreement to observations. ICON-Sapphire especially struggles in capturing the seasonal features of the tropical rainbelt over the oceans of the Eastern Hemisphere, an issue associated with a cold SST bias at the equator. ICON-Sapphire also shows that a perfect representation of the diurnal cycle of precipitation over land is not a requirement to capture the seasonal features of the rainbelt over land, while over the ocean, 5km is sufficient to adequately represent the diurnal cycle of precipitation.

During polar spring, periods of elevated tropospheric bromine known as “bromine explosion events” are associated with near complete removal of surface ozone. The satellite-based Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) provides total column measurements of bromine monoxide (BrO) with daily global coverage. In this study, we estimate springtime bromine emissions over the Arctic using OMI retrievals of BrO in combination with the GEOS-Chem (version 12.0.1) chemical mechanism, run online within the GEOS Earth System Model. Tropospheric hotspots of BrO are identified over the Arctic where the difference between OMI and modeled columns of BrO exceeds the bias observed over regions not impacted by bromine explosion emissions. The resulting hotspot columns are a lower-limit estimate for the portion of the OMI BrO signal attributable to bromine explosion events and are well correlated with BrO measured in the lower troposphere by buoy-based instruments. Daily flux of molecular bromine is calculated from hotspot columns of BrO based on the modeled atmospheric lifetime of inorganic bromine in the lower troposphere and partitioning of bromine species into BrO at OMI overpass time. Following the application of Arctic emissions in GEOS-Chem, OMI-based tropospheric hotspots of BrO are successfully modeled for 2008 – 2012 and periods of isolated, large (> 50%) decreases in surface ozone are captured during April and May. While this technique does not fully capture the low ozone observed at coastal stations, if a lower threshold is used to identify tropospheric hotspots of BrO, the representation of surface ozone in late spring is improved.

The propagating muons deposit their energies in the volume-of-interest (VOI) within the tomographic configurations, and this energy loss directly indicates that there is a difference in terms of the kinetic energy between the incoming muons and the the outgoing muons. In this study, by using the GEANT4 simulations, we first elaborate this energy difference over the nuclear waste barrels that contain cobalt, strontium, caesium, uranium, and plutonium. We show that the deposited energy through these VOIs is not negligible for the initial energy bins. Then, we suggest a correction factor for the image reconstruction codes where the initial kinetic energy of the entering muons is coarsely predicted in accordance with the deflection angle through the hodoscope sections, thereby renormalizing the deflection angle in the bottom hodoscope depending on the intrinsic properties of the corresponding VOIs. This correction factor encompasses useful information about the target volume traversed by the muons since it is related to the intrinsic features of the VOI. Therefore, it might be utilized in order to complement the scattering information as an input to the image reconstruction.

A strong Southern Hemisphere (SH) sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) event occurred in September 2019 and significantly weakened the stratospheric polar vortex. Due to the positive zonal wind anomalies in the troposphere, the barotropic/baroclinic instability, primarily controlled by the horizontal/vertical wind shear, weakened in the upper troposphere at midlatitudes in late September and early October. As a result, planetary waves (PWs) were deflected equatorward near the tropopause rather than upward into the stratosphere, resulting in less perturbation to the stratospheric polar vortex. After October 15, the westward zonal wind anomalies propagate downward and reach the troposphere, increasing the tropospheric barotropic/baroclinic instability. This benefits the propagation of PWs into the stratosphere, leading to the early breaking of the stratospheric polar vortex. In turn, the SH mesosphere becomes anomalously cold due to the stratospheric wind filtering on the gravity waves (GWs), leading to the much earlier onset of SH polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs).

On the edge of our continents, oceanic crust meets continental crust. At passive margins, those where there is no active tectonics, subduction or transform faulting, these crustal types are connected as sharp continent-ocean boundaries (COB) or as diffuse continent-ocean transition (COT) zones. Passive margins are hard to explore and consequently relatively little is known about their morphology or the processes of their formation. Here we elicit and analyse seismic image interpretations of the passive margin offshore East India conducted by 17 groups of geoscientists to better understand the differences, or lack therein, of COB or COT interpretations of the margin. The group interpretations provide a wide range of margin models, five of which are abrupt COB based and 11 which are diffuse COT based. However, interpretations within the COB set vary in the placement of the boundary line between continental and oceanic crust, the boundary placement lying within the range of interpreted COT zones, with the average COB location falling in the centre of the interpreted COT zones. These crowd-sourced results are then compared with ten published interpretations across the margin, which show COB and COT zones falling in the same area. These findings raise questions as to the real differences in COB and COT models and the geological processes involved in their formation. Considering this, we discuss the implications for passive margin models and the use of Wisdom of Crowds-type approaches in reflecting on both the range of interpretation-based models and in the value of determining ‘average’ model approaches.

Multiple years of thermospheric wind and temperature data were examined to study gravity waves in Earth’s thermosphere. Winds and temperatures were measured using all-sky imaging optical Doppler spectrometers deployed at three sites in Alaska, and three in Antarctica. For all sites, oscillatory perturbations were clearly present in high-pass temporally filtered F-region line-of-sight (LOS) winds for the majority of the clear-sky nights. Oscillations were also discernible in E-region LOS wind and F-region Doppler temperature, albeit less frequently. Oscillation amplitudes correlated strongly with auroral and geomagnetic activity. Observed wave signatures also correlated strongly between geographically nearby observing sites. Amplitudes of LOS wind oscillations were usually small when viewed in the zenith and increased approximately with the sine of the zenith angle – as expected if the underlying motion is predominantly horizontal. The SDI instruments observe in many look directions simultaneously. Phase relationships between perturbations observed in different look directions were used to identify time intervals when the oscillations were likely to be due to traveling waves. However, a portion of the instances of observed oscillations had characteristics suggesting geophysical mechanisms other than traveling waves – a recognition that was only possible because of the large number of look directions sampled by these instruments. Lomb-Scargle analysis was used to derive examples of the range of temporal periods associated with the observed LOS wind oscillations. F-region wind oscillations tended to exhibit periods typically ranging from 60 minutes and above. By contrast, E-region wind oscillation periods were as short as 30 minutes.