Cosegmentation is a recent and rapidly emerging and rapidly growing extension of segmentation, which aims to detect the common object(s) in a group of images. Current cosegmentation methods are ideal and effective only for certain dataset types with limited features that still produce errors making it difficult to obtain detailed metrics of object parts. We propose to build a unified, trainable framework that incorporates multiple features of a high-throughput dataset’s segmented images from multiple algorithms using cosegmentation. Specifically, we propose a novel Cosegmentation for Plant Phenotyping Network (CoPPNet) that utilizes a Fully Convolutional Neural Network with a K-Means Clustering feedback loop for optimal temporal loss. The results from this study will set the benchmark for a novel advancement in computer vision segmentation accuracy and plant phenomics to better understand a plant’s environmental interactions for maximal resilience and yield.

Focusing on non-destructive and automated acquisition of plant phenotypic parameters,this extended abstract proposed an end-to-end deep RNN based network structure for single perspective sparse raw point cloud regression task called DRN. It has been proven to achieve accuracy improvements in PointNet++ and PonitCNN when it comes to regression of lettuce plant height. We believe DRN structure is suitable for feature extraction from plant point cloud data and regression of spatial distance related plant phenotypes like plant height.

The persistent Southern Ocean (SO) shortwave radiation biases in climate models and reanalyses have been associated with the poor representation of clouds, precipitation, aerosols, the atmospheric boundary layer, and their intrinsic interactions. Capitalizing on shipborne observations collected during the Clouds Aerosols Precipitation Radiation and atmospheric Composition Over the Southern Ocean (CAPRICORN) 2016 and 2018 field campaigns, this research investigates and characterizes cloud and precipitation processes from synoptic to micro scales. Distinct cloud and precipitation regimes are found to correspond to the seven thermodynamic clusters established using a K-means clustering technique, while less distinctions are evident using the cyclone and (cold) front compositing methods. Cloud radar and disdrometer data reveal that light precipitation is common over the SO with higher intensities associated with cyclonic and warm frontal regions. While multiple microphysical processes and properties are present in several cloud regimes, ice aggregation appears to be dominant in deep precipitating clouds. Mixed phase, and in some cases, riming was detected in shallow convective clouds away from the frontal conditions. Two unique clusters with contrasting cloud and precipitation properties are observed over the high-latitude SO and coastal Antarctica, suggesting distinct physical processes therein. Through a single case study, in-situ and remote-sensing data collected by an overflight of the Southern Ocean Clouds Radiation Aerosol Transport Experimental Study (SOCRATES) were also evaluated and complement the ship-based analysis.

A recognized deficiency of ocean models with a constant-depth vertical coordinate is for truncation errors in the advection scheme to result in spurious numerical mixing of tracers, which can be substantial larger than that prescribed by the model’s mixing scheme. The z~ vertical coordinate allows vertical levels to displace in a lagrangian fashion on time scales shorter than a few days, but reverts to fixed levels on longer timescales, and is intended to reduce numerical mixing from transient vertical motions such as internal waves and tides. An assessment of z~ in a ¼° global implementation of the NEMO model is presented. It is shown that, in the presence of near-inertial gravity waves in the North Atlantic, z~ significantly reduces eulerian vertical velocities with respect to those in a control simulation with the default z* vertical coordinate; that the vertical coordinate approaches an isopycnal, or adiabatic, surface on short timescales; and that both tendences are enhanced when the z~ timescale parameters are lengthened with respect to the default settings. Evaluation of an effective diapycnal diffusivity, based on density transformation rates, shows that numerical mixing is consistently reduced as the z~ timescales are lengthened. The realism of the model simulation with different timescale parameters is assessed in the global domain, and it is shown that drifts in temperature and salinity, and the spindown in z*of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, are reduced with z~, without incurring significant penalties in other metrics such as the strength of the overturning circulation or sea ice cover.

The timing of transition between the contractional and extensional regimes along the Pyrenean range remains debated. Compared to its central and western parts, the eastern part of the chain was significantly affected by extensional tectonics mostly related to the opening of the Gulf of Lion. The Têt normal fault is the best example of this tectonic activity, with topographic reliefs above 2,000 m in its footwall. In this study, we synthetized previous thermochronological data and performed new (U-Th)/He and fission-track dating in the Eastern Pyrenean massifs. Output apparent exhumation rate and thermal modeling in the hanging-wall of the Têt fault highlight a rapid exhumation (0.48 km/Ma) and cooling (~30°C/Ma) phase between 38 and 35 Ma, followed by slower exhumation/cooling afterwards. In the footwall, cooling subsequently propagated westward along the fault during Priabonian (35-32 Ma), upper Oligocene and lower Miocene (26-19 Ma), and Serravalian-Tortonian times (12-9 Ma). These data and modeling outcomes suggest that the exhumation of the Têt fault hanging-wall related to southward thrusting ended at 35 Ma, and was followed by different extensional stages, with a propagation of the deformation towards the West during the upper Miocene. We propose that the onset of extension in the Eastern Pyrenees occurred during the late Priabonian period, contemporaneously with the large-scale rifting episode recorded in Western Europe. After this event, the Têt fault activity and the westward propagation of the deformation appear mainly controlled by the opening of the Gulf of Lion.

Twenty six years of MF radar wind measurements made from 1994 to 2019 at Davis Station (68.6◦S, 77.9◦E) are used to study the mean re- sponse of the mesosphere-lower thermosphere to stratospheric warmings in the southern hemisphere. Warming events were detected using Modern- Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA)-2 data with a systematic search for reductions in the zonal-mean circulation at 60◦S and corresponding increases in polar temperatures. Some 38 events were identified, including the major warmings of 2002 and 2019, with an average of 1 to 2 warmings per year. At the 10 hPa level, the polar cap temperature increases ranged from 5 to 30 K, with a mean value of 11 K, while the zonal wind speed reductions varied between -7 to -43 ms−1, with −1 a mean value of -15 ms . Peak values occurred near 40 km. Warmings occurred mainly between August and October, with a small peak in oc- currence in April/May. The MF radar data showed an average reduction in the mesospheric eastward winds of about 5-7 ms−1 at heights near 75 km that occurred some 3-4 days prior to the changes in the stratosphere. Warming events were driven by episodic intensifications in planetary waves amplitudes, with quasi-stationary PW 1 being especially important. Plane- tary wave Eliassen-Palm flux divergences show a systematic behavior with time and height that is consistent with a poleward residual circulation and downwelling over the pole prior to the warming events and an equatorward flow and upwelling after the peak of the events.

Key Points: • Ecological and evapotranspiration characteristics of ten typical vegetation communities in semi-arid steppe were refined and decomposed. • Sensitive parameters of dynamic evapotranspiration improve the regional simulation effect. • Deep learning was used to downscale regional evapotranspiration at the 3-hour scale. Abstract Reports on ecohydrological models for semi-arid steppe basins with scarce historical data are rare. To fully understand the ecohydrological processes in such areas and accurately describe the coupling and mutual feedback between ecological and hydrological processes, a distributed ecohydrological model was constructed , which integrates multi-source information into the MY Ecohydrology (MYEH) model. This paper mainly describes the evapotranspiration module (Eva module) based on sensitive parameters and deep learning. Based on multi-source meteorological, soil, vegetation, and remote sensing data, the historical dynamic characteristics of ten typical vegetation communities in the semi-arid steppe are refined in this study and seven evaporation (ET) components in the Xilin River Basin (XRB) from 1980 to 2018 are simulated. The results show that the Naive Bayesian model constructed based on the temperature and three types of surface reflectance can clearly distinguish between snow-covered or-free conditions. Based on the refinement of typical vegetation communities, the ET process characteristics of different vegetation communities in response to climate change can be determined. Dynamic sensitive parameters significantly improve the regional ET simulation. Based on the validation with the Global Land Evaporation Amsterdam Model product and multiple models in multiple time scales (year, quarter, day, 3 h), a relatively consistent and reliable ET process 1 was obtained for the XRB at the 3-hour scale. The uncertainties of adding and dynamizing more ET process parameters and adjusting the algorithm structure must be further studied.

Over much of Africa, radiosonde data are lacking; consequently, the African UTLS is understudied, and potential proxies such as climate models and reanalyses fail to capture the behaviour of the UTLS fully. This study pioneers the use of Global Navigation Satellite System Radio Occultation (GNSS-RO) data from 2001 to 2020 to address the radiosonde data gaps over Africa and contributes to a better understanding of the tropopause (TP) characteristics under the influence of multiple climate drivers. The analyses show that GNSS-RO data from CHAMP, GRACE, MetOp, COSMIC, and COSMIC-2 agree with radiosonde measurements with differences being smaller than 1 K in the UTLS; thereby enabling in-filling of 80% of the missing radiosonde data in Africa during 2001-2020. By contrast, the smoothed vertical temperature profiles of reanalysis products lead to a warm bias of +0.8K in ERA5 and +1.2K in MERRA-2, and these biases alter some vertical and temporal structure details, with possible implications on climate change detection and attribution. Furthermore, the analysis of GNSS-RO data over Africa revealed: 1) influences of global climate drivers on TP temperature, with QBO > ENSO > IOD > NAO > SAM > MJO, and on TP height with ENSO > QBO > NAO > MJO > IOD > SAM; 2) multiple coupled global climate drivers such as ENSO-MJO, ENSO-NAO etc.; 3) coupled global and regional climate drivers that influence the TP variability, e.g., ENSO-ITCZ; and 4), the deep convection associated with the Asian Summer Monsoon and Tropical/African Easterly Jet locally influence TP height.

There is a growing concern that a big coronal mass ejection event will induce perturbations on the power supply of fiber optic transoceanic cables that may produce a global internet blackout. In this paper we give the expression of the voltage variations that a transient change of the geomagnetic field induces on the voltage of the power supply of a transoceanic fiber optic cable. We show that the transient voltage change is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field deviations and not to its time derivative as a direct application of Faraday's law would imply, and this suggests design criteria to protect transoceanic fiber optic systems against big solar storm events. The presented analysis also enables the classification of existing systems into some that are less sensitive to the weakening of the geomagnetic field occurring during strong solar storms and others that are more prone to experience an outage when a weakening of the geomagnetic field occurs.

We investigated the stable isotope hydrology of Sable Island, NS, Canada over a four year period from September, 2017 until August, 2021. The δ 2 H and δ 18 O values of inte- grated monthly precipitation were weakly seasonal and ranged from -66 to -17 per mil and from -9.7 to -3.1 per mil, respectively. Fitting these monthly precipitation data resulted in a Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) defined by: δ 2 H = 7.28 ± 0.22×δ 18 O + 7.95 ± 1.38 per mil. Amount weighted annual precipitation had δ 2 H and δ 18 O values of -37 ± 12 per mil and -6.1 ± 1.6 per mil, respectively. Deep groundwater had more negative δ 2 H and δ 18 O values than mean annual precipitation, suggesting recharge oc- curs mainly in the winter, while shallow groundwater had δ 2 H and δ 18 O values more consistent with mean annual precipitation or mixing of freshwater with local seawater. Surface waters had more positive values and showed evidence of isolation from the groundwater system. The stable isotopic compositions of plant(leaf) water, on the other hand, indicate plants use groundwater as their source. Fog had δ 2 H and δ 18 O values that were significantly more positive than those of local precipitation, yet had similar 17 O-excess values. Our results establish an important framework for ongoing isotopic studies of feral horses and other wildlife on Sable Island.

The Danakil depression in Ethiopia, at the end of the southern Red Sea, has been the locus of volcanic crises in 2004-10, with emplacement of 15 dykes: one, non-emergent, in Lake Asale next to Black Mountain and south of the Dallol dome during fall 2004, the others in the Dabbahu-Manda Hararo rift segment between September 2005 and May 2010. We report on a hydrothermal crisis that opened a 4.5 km long fissure in the ground, at the same time the Black Mountain dyke was intruding the crust 2 km away and parallel to it. The fissure, located north and south of Yellow Lake (Gaet’ale) and trending NNW-SSE, is still active. Its morphology is remarkably diversified, but surface evidence of the structural deformation has been lost over the years. Its formation is coeval with the intrusion of the Black Mountain dyke intrusion. It is suggested that after its documented propagation, the Black Mountain dyke propagated aseismically eastward as a sill, disrupting the stress equilibrium in the long-living Yellow Lake hydrothermal environment. The stress field was brought to rupture by the increased deviatoric stress, triggering the nucleation of a tensile fracture that propagated to the surface and released the far-field stress already released at depth by the emplacement of the dyke. This study documents the delicate intermingling of magmatic, tectonic, and hydrothermal processes at the ultimate step of continental rifting prior to the earliest stage of oceanic spreading.

We investigate induced seismicity associated with a hydraulic stimulation campaign performed in 2020 in the 5.8 km deep geothermal OTN-2 well near Helsinki, Finland as part of the St1 Deep Heat project. A total of 2,875 m3 of fresh water was injected during 16 days at well-head pressures <70 MPa and with flow rates between 400-1000 l/min. The seismicity was monitored using a high-resolution seismic network composed of 10 borehole geophones surrounding the project site and a borehole array of 10 geophones located in adjacent OTN-3 well. A total of 6,121 induced earthquakes with local magnitudes were recorded during and after the stimulation campaign. The analyzed statistical parameters include magnitude-frequency b-value, interevent time and interevent time ratio, as well as magnitude correlations. We find that the b-value remained stationary for the entire injection period suggesting limited stress build-up or limited fracture network coalescence in the reservoir. The seismicity during the stimulation neither shows signatures of magnitude correlations, nor temporal clustering or anticlustering beyond those arising from varying injection rates. The interevent time statistics are characterized by a Poissonian time-varying distribution. The calculated parameters indicate no earthquake interaction. Focal mechanisms suggest that the injection activated a spatially distributed network of similarly oriented fractures. The seismicity passively responded to the hydraulic energy input rate, with the cumulative seismic moment proportional to the cumulative hydraulic energy and maximum magnitude controlled by injection rate. The performed study provides a base for implementation of time-dependent probabilistic seismic hazard assessment for the project site.

Atomic Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant constituent of the terrestrial exosphere. Its charge exchange interaction with ring current ions (H+ and O+) serves to dissipate magnetospheric energy during geomagnetic storms, resulting in the generation of energetic neutral atoms (ENAs). Determination of ring current ion distributions through modeling depends critically on the specification of the exospheric H density distribution. Furthermore, theoretical studies have demonstrated that ring current recovery rate after the storm onset directly correlates with the H density. Although measurements of H airglow emission at altitudes [3,6] Re exhibit storm-time variations, the H density distributions used in ring current modeling are typically assumed to be temporally static during storms. In this presentation, we will describe the temporal and spatial evolution of ring current ion densities in response to a realistically dynamic exospheric H density distribution using the Comprehensive Inner Magnetosphere-Ionosphere Model (CIMI). The exospheric densities used as input to the model are fully data-driven, derived as global, 3D, and time-dependent tomographic reconstructions of H emission data acquired from Lyman-alpha detectors onboard the NASA TWINS satellites during the geomagnetic storm that occurred on March 17, 2013. We will examine modeled ring current recovery rates using both dynamic and static reconstructions and evaluate the impact of realistic storm-time exospheric variability on the simulations.

Stable isotope analysis has been widely used to aid the source identification of methane. However, the isotopic (13C/12C and D/H) and isotopologue (13CH3D and 12CH2D2) signatures of microbial methane in natural environments are often different from those in laboratory cultures in which methanogens are typically grown under optimal conditions. Growth phase and hydrogen (H2) concentration have been proposed as factors controlling the isotopic compositions of methane, but their effects on the relationship among carbon, hydrogen and doubly-substituted “clumped” isotopologue systems have not been assessed in a quantitative framework. Here we experimentally investigate the bulk (δ13C and δD) and clumped (∆13CH3D) isotopologue compositions of methane produced by hyperthermophilic hydrogenotrophic (CO2-reducing) methanogens using batch and fed-batch systems at different growth phases and H2 mixing ratios (Methanocaldococcus bathoardescens at 82 or 60 °C and on 80 or 25% H2; Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus ∆H at 65 °C and on 20, 5 or 1.6% H2). We observed a large range (18 to 63‰) of carbon isotope fractionations, with larger values observed during later growth phase, consistent with previous observations. In contrast, hydrogen isotope fractionations remained relatively constant at –317 ± 25‰. Linear growth was observed for experiments with M. bathoardescens, suggesting that dissolution of gaseous H2 into liquid media became the rate limit as cell density increased. Accordingly, the low (and undersaturated) dissolved H2 concentrations can explain the increased carbon isotope fractionations during the later growth phase. The δD and Δ13CH3D values indicated departure from equilibrium throughout experiments. As the cell density increased and dissolved H2 decreased, Δ13CH3D decreased (further departure from equilibrium), contrary to expectations from previous models. Our isotopologue flow network model reproduced the observed trends when the last H-addition step is less reversible relative to the first three H-addition steps (up to CH3-CoM). In this differential reversibility model, carbon, hydrogen and clumped isotopologue fractionations are largely controlled by the reversibility of the first three H-addition steps under high H2 concentrations; the last H-addition step becomes important under low H2. The magnitude of depletion and decreasing trend in Δ13CH3D values were reproduced when a large (≥6‰) secondary clumped kinetic isotope effect was considered in the model. This study highlights the advantage of combined bulk and clumped isotope analyses and the importance of physiological factors (growth phase) and energy availability (dissolved H2 concentration) when using isotope analyses to aid the source identification of methane.

With global warming and increasing water use, tap water resources need sustainable management. We used hydrogen and oxygen isotope measurements (𝛿2H and 𝛿18O) to identify issues associated with tap water resources in Canada. We analyzed 576 summer tap samples collected from across Canada and 76 tap samples from three cities during different seasons and years. We classified the samples based on their sources: groundwater (TapGroundwater), river (TapRiver) and lake (TapLake). 𝛿2H in tap water correlates strongly with values predicted for local precipitation across Canada with a stronger correlation for TapGroundwater and TapRiver than for TapLake. We then constructed water balance models to predict the 𝛿2H of surface water across Canada, and validated it against Canadian river water 𝛿2H data. 𝛿2H in tap water correlates strongly with values predicted for surface water across Canada with a stronger correlation for TapRiver and TapLake than for TapGroundwater. TapGroundwater 𝛿2H values reflect the 𝛿2H of annually averaged precipitation, whereas TapRiver and TapLake 𝛿2H values reflect post-precipitation processes. We used the 𝛿2H residuals between the observed and predicted 𝛿2H values to assess regional processes influencing tap water 𝛿2H values across Canada. Regionally, snow/glacier melt contributes to all tap sources around the Rockies. Tap waters are highly evaporated across Western Canada, irrespective of their sources. In the Great Lakes and East Coast regions, tap waters are evaporated in many localities, particularly those using surface reservoirs and lakes. This study provides baselines for isotopic monitoring of tap water resources and forensic studies in Canada.

Climate vulnerability assessments rely on water infrastructure system models that imperfectly predict performance metrics under ensembles of future scenarios. There is a benefit to reduced complexity system representations to support these assessments, especially when large ensembles are used to better characterize future uncertainties. An important question is whether the total uncertainty in the output metrics is primarily attributable to the climate ensemble or to the systems model itself. Here we develop a method to address this question by combining time series error models of performance metrics with time-varying Sobol sensitivity analysis. The method is applied to a reduced complexity multi-reservoir systems model of the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Basin in California to demonstrate the decomposition of flood risk and water supply uncertainties under an ensemble of climate change scenarios. The results show that the contribution of systems model error to total uncertainty is small (~5-15%) relative to climate based uncertainties. This indicates that the reduced complexity systems model is sufficiently accurate for use in the context of the vulnerability assessment. We also observe that climate uncertainty is dominated by the choice of GCM and its interactive effects with the representative concentration pathway (RCP), rather than the RCP alone. This observation has implications for how climate vulnerabilities should be interpreted.

Coastal upwelling along the southern coast of Java brings cold and nutrient-rich subsurface water to the surface. We explored whether the upwelling could trigger the onset of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) by supplying cold water to the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean. We used satellite-based daily chlorophyll-a concentration (Chl-a) data during 2003-2020 as a proxy of the coastal upwelling. We focused on first Ch-a blooming that occurred in April–June, the onset phase of the positive IOD (pIOD). We found that the timing and strength of the upwelling signals were significantly correlated with the subsequent IOD peaks. We diagnosed processes associated with the upwelling affecting sea surface temperature (SST) in the southeastern Indian Ocean. Results indicate that after the cold-water upwelling south of Java, westward surface temperature advection plays a role in anomalously cooling the SST in the southeastern Indian Ocean and setting a favorable condition for the subsequent pIOD development.

Ice cores and other paleotemperature proxies, together with general circulation models, have provided information on past surface temperatures and the atmosphere’s composition in different climates. Little is known, however, about past temperatures at high altitudes, which play a crucial role in Earth’s radiative energy budget. Paleoclimate records at high-altitude sites are sparse, and the few that are available show poor agreement with climate model predictions. These disagreements could be due to insufficient spatial coverage, spatiotemporal biases, or model physics; new records that can mitigate or avoid these uncertainties are needed. Here, we constrain the change in upper-tropospheric temperature at the global scale during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) using the clumped-isotope composition of molecular oxygen trapped in polar ice cores. Aided by global three-dimensional chemical transport modeling, we exploit the intrinsic temperature sensitivity of the clumped-isotope composition of atmospheric oxygen to infer that the upper troposphere (5 – 15 km altitude, effective mean 10 – 11 km) was 4 – 10°C cooler during the LGM than during the late preindustrial Holocene. These results support a minor or negligible steepening of atmospheric lapse rates during the LGM, which is consistent with a range of climate model simulations. Proxy-model disagreements with other high-altitude records may stem from inaccuracies in regional hydroclimate simulation, possibly related to land-atmosphere feedbacks.