This chapter describes the variability of rainfall and river discharges in the Ogooué River basin (ORB) in recent decades (since 1940). Due to its location crossing the Equator, the ORB receives abundant precipitation that maintains one of the world’s best-preserved ecosystems. In contrast to neighboring forest basins that have been severely degraded because of deforestation, mining resources extraction, extensions of agricultural areas, and river transport, which is a crucial alternative to the cruel lack of road infrastructures, the ORB is experimenting with an exceptional conservation policy in the region. For example, the rural penetration rate in Gabon is about 1 inhabitant per km² and many studies report a deforestation rate close to 0%, with even full natural regeneration. However, the fluctuations of the standardized anomaly index of rainfall in the ORB show three main phases of variations: the first wet phase was characterized by abundant precipitations from 1940 to 1970, the second phase of the long-term mild drought was extended in the 1970s and 1980s and the final third phase presented a slight return of abundance in precipitation. Even though drought severity in the ORB was mainly weak, its effects in river discharges were very sensitive on seasonal and inter-annual scales. The pure equatorial regime of the ORB characterized by equal maximum floods in spring and autumn changed significantly from the difference between both maximum discharges of 13.5 % during the 1960s to 27.0 %, 38.4 %, 33.9 %, and 26.7 % for the 1970s, 1980s, 2000s and 2010s respectively. A brief comparison between the ORB and the Congo River basin showed that changes in the ORB are part of a regional process that Central Africa is undergoing with some spatial heterogeneities.

Elements with variable valence state (i.e. redox-sensitive) often show contrasting mineral/melt partition coefficients as a function of oxygen fugacity (fO2) in magmatic systems. This is because trace-element incorporation into crystal lattices depends on the charge, size, and crystal-field stabilization energy of atoms, all of which differ greatly between oxidized and reduced species of the same element. This has two critical implications: (1) petrologic/ geochemical modelling of partitioning behavior of redox-sensitive trace-elements in magmatic systems requires some knowledge of their oxidation state, and (2) the oxidation state of magmatic systems may be inferred from partitioning relations of redox-sensitive trace elements preserved in mineral and melt phases of rapidly cooled magmas. The advantage of this oxybarometric approach is that mineral/melt partitioning relations are not sensitive to late stage degassing, charge-transfer on quenching, or surficial alteration. In this chapter we discuss the theoretical treatment of experimental mineral/melt partitioning data of redox-sensitive trace elements, and review aspects concerning the partitioning behavior of well-known redox-sensitive elements, including transition metals (Ti, V, Cr, Fe), rare earth elements (Ce, Eu), U, and siderophile elements (Mo, W, Re, and platinum group elements) under planetary magmatic fO2 conditions.

The latest work on the main African rivers on the Atlantic coast has made it possible to subdivide the multi-year streamflow records into several homogeneous phases. The year 1970 seems to mark both for West and Central Africa the major hydroclimatic event of the 20th century, heralding its main period of deficit flow. For the first time, this article presents a comparative study of the hydro-rainfall records of five drainage systems (those of the Congo River and its main tributaries Lualaba, Kasai, Sangha, Oubangui) based on field data, obtained on both the left and right banks of the Congo River. A reconstitution of the Cuvette Centrale regime is proposed. The 1970 hydro-rainfall disruption is common in most tributaries of the Congo River basin, with significant reductions in flows depending on various factors (geographical location, vegetation cover, surface conditions and land use, etc.). The Oubangui is the most fragile northern tributary that continues to suffer from flow deficits, with an increase in the duration and intensity of its low flows. Since 1995, flows of the Congo River at its main station in Brazzaville/Kinshasa seem to have returned to the interannual average since 1903. However, from the same year onwards, an increase in seasonal variability and a decrease in spring flood flows can also be observed for its bimodal tributaries. This article explains some of the hydrological paradoxes specific to this basin, which illustrate the complexity of its hydrological functioning. Finally, it shows that the period of excess flow in the 1960s is the major hydrological anomaly of the Congo River over a continuous 116-year history. For the whole basin, hydrological variations are attenuated compared to those of precipitation. Finally, the hydrometric regimes reconstructed by spatial altimetry and modelling are compared with those from in situ data.

15 The increasing pressure on wetland resources continues to threaten the role wetlands play in 16 maintaining the ecological balance of watersheds. The Cuvette Centrale of the Congo is the 17 greatest intertropical peatland in the world. To fully understand its role in water resources and 18 ecological services linked to the quality of water and life in the basin, we first need to quantify 19 its role in the hydrological dynamics. To achieve this aim, we used the Soil and Water 20 Assessment Tool model (SWAT)-modified for tropical environments-in combination with 21 monthly discharge data. We analyzed water fluxes entering and flowing out of the Cuvette 22 Centrale of the Congo River Basin on a monthly time scale for the 2000-2012 period. The 23 model was calibrated, validated, and compared with discharge from gauging stations and 24 surface water elevation from radar altimetry. Results showed that upland runoff from the 25 Congo River was the highest contributor to the Cuvette Centrale (33 percent) followed closely 26 by efficient precipitation inside the Cuvette Centrale (31 percent) with right bank and left bank 27 tributaries contributing 25 percent and 11 percent respectively. We simulated monthly mean 28 interannual inflows of approximately 34,150 m 3 s-1 (88 billion m 3) with the main flood peaking 29 in November (45,310 m 3 s-1) and total outflows averaging around 39,860 m 3 s-1 (100 billion 30 m 3) peaking at 52,430 m 3 s-1 in December for the simulation period. We subsequently estimated 31 a negative monthly mean interannual variation of storage in the Cuvette Centrale wetlands in 32 the order of 5,700 m 3 s-1 suggesting that the Cuvette Centrale supplies the river during low 33 water periods. This highlights the important regulatory function of the Cuvette Centrale and 34 the need for protection of groundwater resources in order to maintain wetland water quantities 35 and quality. 36

Many rivers systems of the world are super-saturated in dissolved CO2 (pCO2) relative to equilibrium with the atmosphere — why? Here we compare the coupled organic matter and pCO2 dynamics of the world’s two largest river systems, the Amazon and Congo, where data sets enable insights into the overall functioning of the respective basins. Discharge is the primary control on particulate (POC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) export in both the Amazon and Congo Rivers. Total suspended sediments (TSS) yield from the Amazon is twenty times greater per unit area than the Congo. However, despite low TSS concentrations, the Congo has a POC content approximately five times higher than the Amazon. The organic rich character of both watersheds is reflected in the DOC export, with the Amazon exporting ~ 11% and the Congo ~ 5% of the global land to ocean flux, based on measurements from the last discharge gauging stations. But care should be taken when describing estimates of TSS and carbon to the ocean. Processing and sequestration in tidal and coastal areas can significantly alter TSS and carbon delivery, and last discharge gauging stations are typically hundreds of kilometers from the sea. pCO2 in the Amazon mainstem ranges from 1,000 to 10,000 μatm, with floodplain lakes ranging from 20 to 20,000 μatm. Concentrations in the Congo mainstem are lower, with maximum values of ~5,000 μatm observed. The elevated level of pCO2 even as far as the mouth of such major rivers as the Amazon and Congo, up to thousands of kilometers from CO2-rich small streams, poses a most interesting question — what set of processes maintains such high levels? The answer is presumably some combination of instream metabolism of organic matter of terrestrial and floodplain origin, and/or injection of very high pCO2 water from local floodplains or tributaries.

The spatiotemporal evolution of droughts in the Congo River Basin (CRB) from 1981–2018 was investigated using the Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI) and Standardised Precipitation–Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) to assess the roles of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. The results confirmed a notable trend toward drier conditions, particularly in parts of the northern and central basin, as well as in the south of the CRB, which was associated with increases in potential evapotranspiration and declining rainfall. Global outputs of the Lagrangian model FLEXPART were used to model air masses over four important climatological regions considered to be the main sources of precipitation in the CRB, and their contributions to precipitation over the basin were computed. These analyses confirmed that moisture in the CRB is ~60% self-sourced; African lands were the next greatest contributor, followed by the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. It was found that a reduction in contributions of the sources prevailed during 53 meteorological drought episodes that affected the CRB during the study period and it could be inferred that a reduction in moisture supplied from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans played an important role in the onset of drought episodes. It was also observed that the contribution of moisture from all sources to the CRB decreased during the study period, especially over the northern half of the basin, where the main humid forest of the CRB is located, confirming the importance of water transport and local hydroclimatological dynamics on the hydrological conditions, ecosystems, and local communities of the CRB.

The dynamic topography of the core-mantle boundary (CMB) provides important constraints on dynamic processes in the mantle and core. However, inferences on CMB topography are complicated by the uneven coverage of data with sensitivity to different length scales and strong heterogeneity in the lower mantle. Particularly, a trade-off exists with density variations, which ultimately drive mantle flow and are vital for determining the origin of mantle structures. Here, I review existing models of CMB topography and lower mantle density, focusing on seismological constraints. I develop average models and vote maps with the aim to find model consistencies and discuss what these may teach us about lower mantle structure and dynamics. While most density models image two areas of dense anomalies beneath Africa and the Pacific, their exact location and relationship to seismic velocity structure differs between studies. CMB topography strongly influences the retrieved density structure, which helps to resolve differences between recent studies based on Stoneley modes and tidal measurements. Current CMB topography models vary both in pattern and amplitude and a discrepancy exists between models based on body-wave and normal-mode data. As existing models feature elevated topography below the Large-Low-Velocity Provinces (LLVPs), very dense compositional anomalies may currently be ruled out as possibility. To achieve a similar consistency as observed in lower mantle models of S-wave and P-wave velocity, future studies should combine multiple data sets to break existing trade-offs between CMB topography and density. Important considerations in these studies should be the choice of theoretical approximation and parameterisation. Efforts to develop models of CMB topography consistent with body-wave, normal-mode and geodetic data should be intensified, which will aid in narrowing down possible explanations for the LLVPs and provide additional insights into mantle dynamics.

Fragments of former oceans are commonly observed in mountain belts: blueschists and eclogites, on the one hand, and ophiolites, on the other hand, are all that remains of ancient oceanic lithosphere. Though volumetrically subordinate, they provide essential insights into past geodynamics and into the processes involved in the formation and destruction of oceanic lithosphere. This contribution apprehends these two types of oceanic fragments jointly and shows the advantage of doing so for understanding the dynamics of oceanic convergence, i.e. subduction and obduction. We examine the intimate relationships between blueschists/eclogites and ophiolites, as well as the similarities and differences in the mechanisms leading to their preservation. While the extensive, unmetamorphosed true ophiolites markedly differ from fragments of oceanic lithosphere offscraped from the slab during subduction, at shallow or great depths, both types record the mechanical behavior and ‘hiccups’ of the subduction plate boundary. Their preservation also highlights the importance of the evolution of the subduction regime through time, from the onset of intra-oceanic subduction to the cessation of continental subduction.

Flood disasters have regularly been reported in the Congo Basin with significant damages to human lives, food production systems and infrastructure. Losses incurred by these damages are huge and represent a major challenge for economic expansion in developing nations. In the Congo River Basin, where availability of in-situ data is a significant challenge, new approaches are needed to investigate flood risks and enable effective management strategies. This study uses recently developed global flood prediction data in order to produce flood risk maps for the Congo River Basin, where flood information currently does not exist. Flood hazard maps that estimate fluvial flooding at a grid cell resolution of 3 arc-seconds (~ 90 m), gridded population density data of 1 arc-second (~ 30 m) spatial resolution, and a spatial layer of infrastructure dataset are used to addresses flood risk at the scale of the Congo Basin. The global flood data provides different return periods of exposure to flooding in the Congo Basin and identifies flood extents. The risk analysis results are presented in terms of the percentage of population and infrastructure at flood risk for six return periods (5, 10, 20, 50, 75 and 100 year). Of the 525 administrative territories, 374 are AGU Books

The Gulf of Mexico is a prolific petroleum basin with more than a century-long exploration history. Tectonic models proposed for the basin vary dramatically in many aspects, ranging from the pre-rift locations of the crustal blocks, the timing of the break-up to even the order of tectonic events. The reason for these disagreements is in a thick and complex overburden that obscures seismic imaging of crustal structures. To overcome that, we integrated seismic data with gravity and magnetic fields to determine the crustal architecture in different parts of the basin, as well as to map the location of the key tectonic features. The subsequent spatial analysis of potential fields allowed us to trace the tectonic structures outside of seismic coverage. As a result, a set of new geological constraints was derived including the Triassic rifts, regions of Seaward Dipping Reflectors (SDR), and Jurassic pre-salt sedimentary basins in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and along the Yucatan margin, and two distinct crustal zones in the oceanic domain. We ensure the pre-breakup alignment of the crustal blocks based on the mapped geological features on the conjugate margins. Our tectonic reconstruction takes into account an apparent temporal variability of the magmatic regime during basin formation that ranged from CAMP (~200 Ma) to an ultra-slow amagmatic spreading during the initial stage of the GoM opening (~ 165 Ma). Our reconstruction also includes a major ridge reorganization (~ 152 Ma) associated with increased magmatic supply. This second phase of oceanic spreading ceased at early Cretaceous (~ 135 Ma) based on published correlation analysis of seismic and well data. Overall, the tectonic reconstruction presented here takes into account previously known and newly derived geological constraints and integrates various geophysical datasets, namely seismic, gravity, and magnetics.

The Congo Basin exhibits tremendous heterogeneities, out of which it emerges as an intricate system where complexity will vary consistently over time and space. Increased complexity in the absence of adequate knowledge will always result in increased uncertainties. One way of simplifying this complexity is through an understanding of organisational relationships of the landscape features, which is termed here as catchment classification. The need for a catchment classification framework for the Congo Basin is obvious given the basin’s inherent heterogeneities, the ungauged nature of the basin, and the pressing needs for water resources management that include the quantification of current and future supplies and demands, which also encompass the impacts of future changes associated with climate and land use, as well as water resources operational policies. The need is also prompted by many local-scale management concerns within the basin. This study uses an a priori approach to determine homogenous climatic-physiographic regions that are expected to underline dominant hydrological processes characteristics. A set of 1740 catchment units are partitioned across the whole basin, based on a set of comprehensive criteria, including natural break of the elevation gradient (199 units), inclusion of socio-economic and anthropogenic systems (204 units), and water management units based on traditional nomenclature of the rivers within the basin (1337 units). The identified catchment units are used to assess existing datasets of the basin physical properties, necessary to derive descriptors of the catchments characteristics. An unsupervised classification, based on Hierarchical Agglomerative Cluster algorithm is used, that yields 11 homogenous groups that are consistent with the current perceptual understanding of the Congo Basin physiographic and climatic settings. These regions represent therefore an a priori classification that will be further used to derive functional relationships of the catchments, necessary to enable hydrological prediction and water management in the basin.

The study aims to assess the local response of the regional climate model version 4.6 (RegCM4.6) to the coupling of ocean-atmosphere interaction in Central Africa. The ability of the model is evaluated over six years (first January 2001, to thirty-first December 2006) by conducting two different experiments with the Grell convective scheme. The experiments are carried out monthly with a spatial resolution of 40 km. The model was forced by ERA-Interim reanalyses and validated by GPCP (Global Precipitation Climatology Project) observational data, ERA 5 and ERA-Interim reanalyses. To evaluate the influence of the slab-ocean, we carried out two different experiments: The first experiment is designed to produce the climatology and force the surface limits of RegCM with the sea surface temperature. The second experiment is designed to couple RegCM with the slab-ocean, which provides mutual interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. Using statistical tools, we evaluated the model’s ability to simulate precipitation, surface temperature and wind. Both experiments reasonably reproduce the main characteristics of the rainfall regime, temperature and wind. A comparative analysis of the different experiments reveals that the performances of the experiments are similar in Central Africa and in the different homogeneous sub-regions as far as rainfall is concerned, but there are subtle differences. Slab-ocean improvement varies from season to season and from the sub-region to sub-region. However, we note a significant improvement in temperature and rainfall over the Indian Ocean.

The Congo River provides potential for socio-economic growth at the regional scale, but with limited information on the river dynamics it is difficult for basin countries to benefit from this potential, and to invest in the development of water resources. In recent years, the number of hazards related to navigation and flooding has sharply increased, resulting in high loss of human lives as well as economic losses. Associated problems of river management in the Congo also include inefficiency in hydropower production, an increase in rate of river sedimentation and land use changes. Accurate information is needed to support adequate management strategies such as prediction of navigation water levels and sediment movement, and assessment of environmental impacts and engineering implications of water resources infrastructure. Modelling approaches and space observations have been used to understand the Congo River dynamics, but their effective application has proved difficult due to a lack of ground-based observational data for validation. Recent developments in data capture with acoustic Doppler technologies have considerably improved measurements of river dynamics. As well measuring river discharge, they also allow the analysis of the multiple hydrodynamic features occurring in fluvial systems. This paper presents the results of field measurement campaigns carried out in the middle reach of the Congo River and the Kasai tributary using state of the art measurement technology (ADCP, Sonar, GNSS) for investigation of large rivers. The measurements relate to river flow at multiple transects, river bathymetry, static and continuous water surface elevation, and targeted sediment sampling along the river. The paper provides a descriptive summary of the measurement results, a discussion on the application and performance of the equipment used in the Congo River, and lessons for future use of this equipment for measurements of large rivers in a data scarce environment such as the Congo Basin.

Key Points: • Machine learning (ML) helps model the interaction between clouds and climate using large datasets. • We review physics-guided/explainable ML applied to cloud-related processes in the climate system. • We also provide a guide to scientists who would like to get started with ML. Abstract: Machine learning (ML) algorithms are powerful tools to build models of clouds and climate that are more faithful to the rapidly-increasing volumes of Earth system data than commonly-used semiempirical models. Here, we review ML tools, including interpretable and physics-guided ML, and outline how they can be applied to cloud-related processes in the climate system, including radiation, microphysics, convection, and cloud detection , classification, emulation, and uncertainty quantification. We additionally provide a short guide to get started with ML and survey the frontiers of ML for clouds and climate .

Finding optimum balances between conflicting interests in multipurpose reservoirs often represents an important challenge for decision makers. This study assesses the use of different computational tools to obtain optimal reservoir operations applied to the Hatillo dam in the Dominican Republic. A multiobjective optimization approach is used, in which non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGAII) and multi-objective evolutionary algorithm based on decomposition (MOEA/D) optimizers are applied to models that simulate reservoir operations. Three different Machine Learning (ML) models, namely, the multilayer perceptron (MLP), the radial basis network (RBN) and the linear function (LF), are employed to learn the current operation of the system. Subsequently, a general model is proposed to simulate daily reservoir operations (2009-2019), integrating water balances, physical constraints of the dam components and the ML models, the latter defining daily controlled discharges. In the optimization process, the ML parameters are the decision variables, while the objectives evaluated are irrigation, hydropower generation and flood control. The results are compared with the actual operation of the reservoir. Three dimensional Pareto fronts are obtained, from which, the wide variety of operations can be evidenced. The flood control objective was found to have a wide room for improvement over the current operation of the reservoir, and several of the solutions found improve the current operation for the three proposed objectives. The MLP models tend to generate the best results for this case study and the NSGAII optimizer generates the best optimization results.

Skillful forecasts of weather phenomena in numerical models begin with the most accurate set of initial conditions achievable from observational datasets. The process of combining observations with numerical model predictions is called data assimilation. This chapter describes the types of observations available for data assimilation in models that predict the transport, fate, and impacts of smoke pollution. Observation properties needed for effective data assimilation are identified based on experiences with a variety of observation types in data assimilation experiments, compiled from the published literature. The second half of the chapter surveys the data assimilation methodologies that have been applied to smoke aerosols, and describes specific problems associated with the smoke observations that require innovative techniques in data assimilation. The chapter concludes by providing an outlook for future research and development in data assimilation for smoke prediction models. Data assimilation for prediction of smoke is an emerging area of development that promises to greatly improve forecast skill as new datasets and techniques are applied.

The viscosity of the mantle affects every aspect of the thermal and compositional evolution of Earth's interior. Radial variations in viscosity can affect the sinking of slabs, the morphology of plumes, and the rate of convective heat transport and thermal evolution. Below the mantle transition zone, we detect changes in the long-wavelength pattern of lateral heterogeneity in global tomographic models, a peak in the the depth-distribution of seismic scatterers, and changes in the dynamics plumes and slabs, which may be associated with a change in viscosity. We analyze the long-wavelength structures, radial correlation functions, and spectra of four recent global tomographic models and a suite of geodynamic models. We find that the depth-variations of the spectral slope in tomographic models are most consistent with a geodynamic model that contains both a dynamically significant phase transition and a reduced-viscosity region at the top of the lower mantle. We present new inferences of the mantle radial viscosity profile that are consistent with the presence of such a feature.

Anthropogenic subsurface urban heat islands (SUHIs) in groundwater under cities are known worldwide. SUHIs are potentially threats to springs because much spring fauna, like trout, amphipods, and rare plants, is cold stenothermal. The city of Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, has a SUHI documented by the temperature of an underground spring, dubbed “Little Minnehaha Falls,” inside Schieks Cave, which is located 23 m below the central core of the city. In 2000 the temperature of that spring was elevated 11°C above regional background groundwater temperatures (8°C) at this latitude (45°N). A thermometric survey of the cave and nearby tunnel seepages in 2007 found that an abandoned drill-hole through the bedrock ceiling of the cave was discharging groundwater with a temperature of 17.9°C. By comparison, groundwater in the deep water-table below the cave was closer to natural background temperatures for the region. The unusually warm groundwater was thereby localized to the strata above the cave. This is the strongest signal of anthropogenic groundwater warming in the state of Minnesota and is attributed to vertical heat conduction from basements and pavements. Minneapolis is unique among SUHIs in that a cave forms a natural collection gallery deep below the city surface, whereas the literature is almost exclusively based on data from observation wells.